Charles Schallhorn

Cognition

Slide Duration:

Table of Contents

Section 1: Introduction

What is Psychology?

16m 30s

Intro

0:00

Psychology: Questions and a Demonstration

0:17

Demonstration of Memory

1:45

Directions, Continued

2:21

Here Are the Words

2:28

After the Words

2:54

That Was Called a Distracter Activity

3:23

Recall

4:05

Do You Remember the Word Aardvark?

4:06

Do You Remember the Word Sleep?

4:38

In a Typical Class

4:42

30-90% Will Recall Sleep

4:43

Why?

4:52

First Vocabulary Term

5:27

Schema: A Mental (Cognitive) Map, Filter or Representation of an Idea-Made Up of Associations and Connections

5:28

Need them to Learn

5:50

Work of Jean Piaget

5:57

Schema: A Visual Representation

6:08

The Brain

11:21

Looks for Patterns and Tries to Simplify the World

11:22

Tries to Make Meanings Where They May be None

11:29

Many Kinds of Schemas

11:42

Simon and Garfunkel - The Boxer -A Man Hears What He Wants to Hear and Disregards the Rest

12:20

Psychology

13:04

Will Give New Schemas

13:05

New Ways of Looking at Own and Other's Behaviors

13:12

Give Some Context and Understanding to Why People Do What They Do

13:24

This Course is an Introduction

13:41

Some Topics Will Be Doctoral Dissertations

13:43

Topic Will Be Tip of Iceberg

13:53

Interdisciplinary Field of Study

14:33

Overlaps with Biology, Brain Science, Chemistry, Sociology, Economics……

14:42

Has Own Vocabulary

14:51

Common Words Will Take on New Meanings

15:04

Many New Words

15:10

Roots of Words Help Out

15:12

Review

15:29

What is Psychology?

15:30

Why Did You Probably Recall the Word Sleep When We Did the Demonstration Earlier?

15:39

What is a Schema and What Kinds of Schemas Can People Have?

15:47

Take a Look at Your Own Schemas-What Kind do you Have?

15:51

Psychology Connects to Many Different Fields-Which Connections Have Jumped Out At You so Far?

15:59

History and Approaches

23m 18s

Intro

0:00

History and Approaches (2-4%)

0:14

Psychology Has Evolved Since Its Inception As a Discipline in 1879

0:31

Identify the Major Historical Figures in Psychology

0:54

What is Psychology?

1:08

Psychology

1:09

Definition: The Scientific Study of Behavior and Mental Processes

1:24

Greek Letter Psi (Psychology Abbreviation)

2:05

What is Psychology Now?

2:21

Psychology Connects With Many Other Subjects

2:22

List of Included Topics

2:31

Where Did Psychology Come From?

3:57

Psychology - Long Past, Short History

3:58

Lots of Thinkers and Philosophies Over Time

4:03

Greeks

4:18

Religious Traditions

4:24

Enlightenment Thinkers

4:25

Disclaimer -- Oversimplification and Cherry-Picking of Their Ideas

4:27

Theories of Human Nature

5:00

The Ancient Greeks

5:51

Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates, Galen

5:52

Philosophy (The Love of Wisdom)

5:56

Socrates

6:03

Early Greek Philosopher

6:04

One Thing Only I know, And That is I Know Nothing.

6:05

Wisdom Begins When One Learns to Doubt

6:16

There is No Real Philosophy Until the Mind Begins to Examine Itself

6:36

Know Thyself

6:41

Developed Socratic Method Questioning Style

6:50

Included Demand for Accurate Definitions, Clear Thinking, and Exact Analysis

7:25

Plato

7:39

Knowledge is Innate

7:40

Information From Sense is Impermanent and Illusory

7:55

The Allegory of the Cave

8:17

Aristotle-The Rule of Reason

9:52

Three Part Division of Soul - Appetite, Reason, Temper

9:58

Controlling Body's Passions

10:06

Chariot Must Reign in Animal Appetites in Order for Soul to Gain True Happiness

10:29

Knowledge is NOT Preexisting

10:45

Mind is a Blank Slate

10:55

Body and Soul Cannot Be Separate

11:14

The Ancient Greeks

11:26

Greek Philosophers - Moved Away From Gods and Toward Biology and Brain

11:27

Religious Traditions

12:25

Context and Information Only

12:26

Gave Cultures of People Theory of Human Nature

12:30

Vedic and Hindu Traditions

12:57

Buddhist Traditions

13:03

Early Hebrews and Jewish Tradition

13:04

Chinese and East Asian Cultures

13:06

Mind and Body

13:15

Connected: Hebrews, Augustine, Aquinas, Aristotle

13:18

Distinct: Socrates, Plato, Descartes

13:32

Psychology's Roots -- Prescientific Psychology

13:56

Rene Descartes, Frances Bacon, John Locke, and Empiricism

13:57

Rene Descartes

14:06

French Philosopher and Writer

14:23

Mathematician

14:27

Dualism

14:36

Mind and Body Separate Entities But Interact

14:41

Deterministic and Mechanistic View of Human Nature

14:52

Rationality and Freedom Located in Soul

14:56

Cogito, Ergo Sum I Think, Therefore I am

15:15

Awareness of Self Indicated Proof For Existence of Self

15:31

Frances Bacon

15:45

English Philosopher

15:46

Mind and Failings

15:49

Mind Seeks Patterns

15:54

Beginning of Systematic Empirical Research

16:20

Developed the Experiment to Gain Knowledge

16:27

Believed That Learning Could Only be Advanced Through Observation of Facts, Experimentation, and Comparisons

16:39

John Locke

17:17

British Political Philosopher

17:18

Life, Liberty, and Property Are Natural Rights

17:24

Tabula Rasa

17:46

Environmental Determinism

17:55

Empiricism

18:51

Locke Added to Bacon's Ideas

18:52

Empiricism Was Born

18:56

Knowledge Originates from Sensory Experiences

19:01

Science Should Rely on Observation and Experimentation

19:08

What is the Evidence for the Claim?

19:14

Counters Intuition, Priori Knowledge and Revelation

19:45

Pseudosciences

20:39

Pseudoscientific Physiological Views During Rise of Scientific Psychology

20:40

Phrenology

20:51

Physiognomy

21:37

Somatyping

21:49

Review Questions

22:16

Distinguish Among the Various Philosophical Views That Came Before Psychology.

22:19

How Did Both Philosophy and Science Contribute to the Beginning of Psychology?

22:27

How Did Empiricism Move Psychology from the Dark Ages of Superstition Into the Modern Day World of Science?

22:40

AP Psychology Exam

22m 47s

Intro

0:00

The AP Psychology Exam

0:12

I. History and Approaches, 2-4%

0:54

II. Research Methods, 8-10%

0:59

III. Biological Bases of Behavior, 8-10%

1:11

IV. Sensation and Perception, 6-8%

1:40

V. States of Consciousness, 2-4%

1:51

VI. Learning, 7-9%

2:01

VII. Cognition, 8-10%

2:13

VIII. Motivation and Emotion, 6-8%

2:19

IX. Development Psychology, 7-9%

2:34

X. Personality, 5-7%

2:44

XI. Testing and Individual Differences, 5-7%

2:56

XII. Abnormal Behavior, 7-9%

3:08

XIII. Treatment of Abnormal Behavior, 5-7%

3:26

XIV. Social Psychology, 8-10%

3:40

Multiple Choice Questions

4:27

100 Multiple Choice Questions

4:30

70 Minutes

4:38

2/3 Overall Grade

4:56

A-E Answers

5:08

Names, Charts, Graphs, Drawings Are All Possible

5:21

No 1/4 Point Adjustment

5:54

Definition Questions

6:37

Conceptual and Application Questions

6:45

FRQs

7:20

Two Required Free Response (Essay) Questions

7:32

50 Minutes

7:36

1/3 of Overall Grade

7:39

Content Can Be Any Topic/Term in Psychology

8:03

Points Given for Correct Responses Not Taken Away for Incorrect Material

10:05

Points Only Removed if One Part of Answer Contradicts Another Part

10:20

Readers Looking for Ways to Give Points

10:47

FRQs and the Rubric

12:08

Questions--Created for Various Forms of the Exam

12:14

Rubrics Created When Question and Table Leaders go to Scoring Site

13:39

Teachers/Professors Go To Scoring Site

14:08

Practice with Samples

14:15

Scored in Packs of 25

14:24

FRQ Recommendations

16:03

Read Through Both Questions Before Doing Anything Else

16:04

Think Through the Answer Before Starting to Write

16:10

Write an Outline or Notes in the Test Question Booklet

16:15

Don't be Afraid to Cross Something Out

16:35

Write in Sentences -- Do Not Outline or Bullet Your Answer

16:52

Be as Complete as Possible, But Keep to the Point

17:06

Watch the Time

17:13

Structure Answer Following Structure of Question

17:42

Make it as Easy as Possible to Give You Points

17:53

Finally

19:04

Purchase or Rent Textbook for Course

19:05

Check out YouTube Links

19:39

Use Short Quizzes in Text

20:28

Purchase Review Books

20:37

If Flashcards Help -- Buy Barron's Set

20:57

Practice Explaining Information With a Friend

21:04

Learn the Material First Time Around

21:18

Spend at Least an Hour Per Day Reviewing the Month Prior to Exam

21:38

Early History

20m 55s

Intro

0:00

Scientific Psychology: The History Begins

0:12

Early Psychological Science

0:14

Structuralism

0:16

Functionalism

0:21

Gestalt Psychology

0:23

Psychoanalysis

0:25

Behaviorism

0:26

Structuralism (1875-1930's)

0:40

Wilhelm Wundt: The First Psychologist (1832-1920)

0:45

Edward Titchener: The First US Psychologist

1:24

Led First Real School or Group of Psychologists

1:31

Was Impressed with the Sciences Breaking Down Complex Things into Simple Things

1:35

Primary Problem Was Lack of Reliability and Validity

1:52

Structuralism Main Ideas

2:01

Early Approach to Psychology, Tried to Identify Structure of Conscious Mind

2:03

Subjective Unit for Structuralists Was Elementary Elements of Consciousness

2:26

Sub-Units of Consciousness Through Method of Introspection

2:51

Trained Observer to Reflect On and Analyze Mental Experiences

3:39

Functionalists

4:08

No Leader of Group/More Like a School of Though

4:10

Wanted to Study Consciousness

4:18

How Does Consciousness Work?

4:25

What Adaptive Purpose Does it Serve?

4:38

How Do Our Mental and Behavioral Processes Enable us to Adapt, Survive, and Be Successful?

4:52

Much More Into Understanding Application to Real Life Over Theoretical Understandings

5:16

Functionalists - William James

5:33

Established New Science of Psychology in America

5:44

Religion and Psychology

5:54

First Psychology Teacher in US

6:10

Principles of Psychology - First Text on Subject

6:12

Independently Came Up With the James-Lange Theory of Emotion

6:24

Mary Whiton Caulkins

6:59

Functionalist Student of William James

7:05

Was President of APA

7:07

First Woman to Serve in That Office

7:10

Earned PhD at Harvard Under William James, Was Refused Degree by Harvard Corporation

7:18

Harvard Continues to Refuse to Grant Degree Posthumously

7:20

Focus Was On The Self

7:46

Margaret Floy Washburn

8:31

Student of Titchner

8:34

First Woman to Earn Doctoral Degree in American Psychology (1894)

8:38

Second Woman to Serve as APA President 1921

8:46

Wrote The Animal Mind

8:51

Gestalt Psychology

9:08

Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)

9:12

The Whole is Greater Than The Sum of its Parts

9:15

Early Approach to Psychology, Studied How Mind Actively Organizes Stimuli into Meaningful Wholes

10:14

More Details on Gestalt in Sensation and Perception Unit

10:31

Psychoanalysis

10:34

Sigmund Freud

10:36

First Wave of Modern Psychology

10:37

Physician by Trade, Experience With Hysteria

10:42

Later Work and Theories Focused on Case Studies and Conjecture, Not Experimentation

10:56

Structure of the Mind - Id/Ego/Superego

11:06

Existence of Unconscious/Subconscious

11:12

Always a Reason for All Behavior

11:30

Psychosexual Stages of Development

12:02

Personality by Age 5

12:15

More Detail in Personality Unit

12:26

Behavioral Psychology

12:33

Edward Thorndike, John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner

12:34

Reaction to Freudian Views, Second Wave of Psychology

13:09

Focus Only on Observable Behavior

13:22

Most Scientific View to Date

13:38

Animal Research - Learning and Conditioning

13:40

More Detail in Learning Unit

13:53

Edward Thorndike

13:57

Learning Theory of Connectionism

13:59

Cats and Escaping Puzzle Boxes

14:05

Animals Connected Behaviors to Outcomes - Early Behaviorism

14:16

Law of Effect

14:23

Father of Modern Educational Psych

14:27

Ivan Pavlov

15:07

Not a Behaviorist, But Discovered Behavioral Principles

15:11

Russian Physiologist

15:14

Studied Digestion and Salivation in Dogs Which Lead to Classical Conditioning

15:15

Unconditioned Stimulus and Response

15:25

Pavlov's Dog

15:31

John B. Watson

15:42

Early Behaviorist

15:43

Classical Conditioning

15:44

Fear and Little Albert

15:46

Left Psych and Went Into Advertising, Pioneered Adding Sex Appeal in Ads

15:54

B. F. Skinner

16:07

Primary Behaviorist

16:09

Thoughts/Feelings Not Important - Only Behavior

16:11

Operant Conditioning - Built on Work of Thorndike

16:15

Reinforcement and Punishment

16:20

Operant Conditioning Box

16:23

Much Science to Back Up Views

16:26

Dorothea Dix

16:33

Social Activist

16:34

Nursed Both Sides During US Civil War

16:38

Government Should Play Role in Social Welfare

16:45

Created First Mental Asylums

16:57

Charles Darwin

17:13

English Naturalist

17:15

Origin of the Species

17:18

Evolution

17:21

Natural Selection

17:24

Influenced Functionalism

17:38

Influenced Current Evolutionary Perspective

17:41

Traits Are Somehow Adaptive

17:46

G. Stanley Hall

18:10

First APA President

18:14

Childhood Psych and Evolutionary Psych

18:16

Studied Racial and Gender Differences

18:20

Religion and Psychology

18:22

The Storm and Stress of Adolescence

18:27

Eugenics Fan

18:41

Mentored Many Major Psychologists

19:46

Review

19:53

When and How Did Modern Psychological Science Begin?

19:55

How Did Psychology Continue to Develop From the 1920s Through Today?

20:01

Distinguish Between the Key Early Fields, Structuralism, Functionalism, Gestalt and Behaviorism.

20:05

Name the Key Contributions of the Early Contributors to the Field of Psychology

20:17

Perspectives & Approaches

38m 16s

Intro

0:00

Unit Objectives from College Board

0:12

Key Questions

0:52

Perspectives/Approaches

1:29

Perspectives

1:30

Perspectives Example

1:41

Psychology's Biggest Question

2:47

Nature vs. Nurture

2:49

Biological Determinism (Biology as Destiny)

2:56

Environmental Determinism (Blank Slate)

3:01

Nature vs. Nurture Example

3:11

How Do We View the World?

3:46

Maslow Quote

3:52

Schemas and Lenses Determine your Perspective

4:12

Modern Psychological Perspectives

4:40

Biological Perspective

5:01

Behaviors, Thoughts, and Emotions

5:03

Genetics

6:04

Brain Chemicals

6:10

Serotonin

6:11

Adrenaline

6:21

Hormones

6:31

Evolutionary Perspective

6:50

Descendent Idea of Darwin's Natural Selection

6:56

Traits are Adaptive Outcomes of Natural Selection

7:35

Big Question: How has Evolution Shaped the Mind and Behavior?

7:57

Related to Sociobiology

8:02

Psychodynamic Perspective

8:32

Humans are Born with Instincts

8:38

Unconscious and Subconscious: Hidden Motivations

9:09

Childhood Experiences Determine Adult Personality

9:39

Backward Looking

10:02

Ideas Not Testable and Not Falsifiable

10:21

Cognitive Perspective

11:16

Cognition is Humans Seeking, Evaluating, and Transmitting Information

11:24

Big Question: How do People Acquire, Store, Process, and Use Information?

11:35

Reality is Different for Each Person

13:21

Humanistic Perspective

15:07

Response to Psychoanalysis and Behaviorism

15:16

Rooted in Existential Thought

15:40

People are Built to Grow

16:04

Positive Orientation Toward Behavior

16:11

Phenomenology: Individual Perception of Reality

16:21

Self-Concept and Self-Image

16:40

How People Meet Needs for Love, Acceptive, and Self-Fulfillment

16:55

Behavioral Perspective

18:04

Human Behavior Learned through Interacting with Environment

18:11

We Learn Observable Responses

18:57

We Learn to Predict, Obtain, and Avoid

19:23

Humans are Passive Organisms who are Reactive, not Proactive

19:33

Consequences to External Stimuli

19:57

We Learn through Conditioning

22:06

Modeling and Imitation

22:11

Positive Reinforcement

22:18

Sociocultural Perspective

22:32

Behavior and Thinking Vary Across Cultures

22:36

Gender Roles are Key Aspects of Human Identity

23:35

Humans are Strongly Influenced by Contexts

24:18

Culture Comparisons

24:30

Collectivist Culture: Identity with Group

24:40

Emotional Dependence and Conformity

24:53

Personal Goals Match Group Goals

25:03

Trust Placed in Group Decisions

25:16

Individualist Culture: Identity is Personal

25:28

Personal Goals Don't Match Group Goals

16:03

Emotional Independence

26:25

Trust Placed in Individual Decisions

26:40

Biopsychosocial Perspective

26:55

Cross-Disciplinary and Eclectic

27:32

Combines Biological, Psychological, and Cultural Perspectives

27:48

Links Body and Environment

27:57

So What Does This All Mean?

29:28

Behavior through Multiple Lenses

29:41

The Big Picture Example: Using All Perspectives

31:06

What and Why the Behavior Is

32:15

Explaining Alcoholism

32:25

Example: Using All Perspectives

32:26

Review Questions

36:08

How do the Various Perspectives View Behavior?

36:10

What are the Key Lenses each One Uses to Examine Behavior?

36:17

Which Perspectives Uses these Ideas to Study Behavior?

36:44

Subfields in Psychology

20m 16s

Intro

0:00

Psychology Has Many Facets

0:09

Basic Research Aims to Increase Scientific Knowledge Base -- Pure Science

0:18

Ex: How Do Hormones Affect Each Other in Reaction to Eating and Sleeping?

0:37

Applied Research Aims to Solve Practical Problems

0:49

Ex: Why Has Motivation Decreased Among Public School Teachers?

0:55

Ex: Military Research on How to Increase Soldier Effectiveness by Reducing Need for Sleep

1:08

Psychology Has Many Facets

1:37

Biggest Group in Psychology is the American Psychological Association

1:46

APA Website Reflects the Many Fields within the APA Itself

1:47

Reflects on the History of Psychology

1:53

Reflects on Diversity of Psychological Offerings

1:57

Divisions of the APA

2:11

Psychometrics

4:10

Scientific Study of the Measurement of Human Abilities, Attitudes, and Traits

4:18

Uses Psychological Tests

4:36

Often Used in Special Education

4:45

Developmental

5:09

Study of Physical, Cognitive, and Social Changes Through Life

5:13

Divides Lifespan Into Seven Phases

5:16

Educational

5:36

Studies How Psychological Processes Affect and Enhance Teaching and Learning

5:38

Personality

6:32

Studies the Individual Characteristic Patterns of Thinking, Feeling, and Acting -- Looks at the Whole Human Individual

6:35

Most Philosophical of all Subfields -- How Did We Get That Way? Why Are We This Way?

6:53

Examines patterns of Emotions, Motivation, Temperament, Learning, Growth, and Development

6:57

Seeks to Understand What Personality Is, How it Develops, and How Stable it is Over Time

7:14

Social Psychology

7:37

Studies How We Think About, Influence, and Relate to Each Other

7:41

Incredibly Diverse Subfield

7:45

Examples of Social Psychologists Zimbardo, Asch, Lewin, and Milgram

7:50

Most Infamous Field in Psychology Due to Zimbardo's Research (Stanford Prison Experiment) and Milgram's Study of Obedience to Authority

8:20

Also Studies Concepts of Love and Attraction, and Helping Behaviors

9:08

Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology

9:26

Application of Psychological Concepts and Methods to Optimize Human Behavior in the Workplace

9:33

Studies Workplace Satisfaction

9:43

Studies Incentives and Motivation

9:47

Ex: Consultant Character in the Movie Office Space

10:02

Human Factors

10:22

Study of How People and Machines Interact With Each Other Resulting in the Design of Machines and Environments

10:27

How to Design Products and Tools to Make Them Easier and Safer to Use

10:53

Products Designed With Users in Mind

11:01

Strives to Make Technology Adapt to Humans, Not Other Way Around

11:08

Ex: Design of Cars, Phones, Video Game Controllers, Websites, etc.

11:17

Can be Applied to Many Far Reaching Disciplines Like Medicine, Design, Architecture, and Engineering

12:22

Counseling Psychology

12:32

Assists People With Problems In Living (Related to School, Work, Marriage, etc.) and in Achieving Greater Sense of Well-Being

12:40

Subfield Most People Think of When They Think of the Word Psychology

12:59

Therapy -- Problems and Growth

13:08

Requires at Least a Master's Degree to Practice Counseling Psychology

13:21

Many Counselors Can Be Found in Schools as Academic Advisors and Crisis Counselors

13:25

In Some Aspects, Quite Similar to Social Work

13:55

Clinical Psychology

14:12

Studies, Assesses, and Treats People With Psychological Disorders

14:18

Deals With More Serious Disorders (Ex: Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder)

14:32

Found Working in Private Practices, Hospitals, and Universities

14:43

Requires a Ph.D. to Enter Field

14:50

Psychiatry

17:06

Branch of Medicine Dealing With Psychological Disorders, Practiced by Physicians Who Often Provide Medical Treatment as Well as Psychological Therapy

17:09

Requires an MD License

17:19

Able to Prescribe Drugs

17:36

Review

17:59

Which Kind of Psychology Deals With…

18:06

Section 2: Research Methods

The Science of Psychology

49m 16s

Intro

0:00

Is Psychology a Science?

0:14

Some Conclude No, Psychology is Not a Science

0:17

Some Say It's a Soft Science

0:23

Methodology is the Same As Hard Sciences

0:35

Subjects Are More Complex

0:40

Empiricism: The Goals

1:29

To Measure and Describe Behaviors

1:39

To Gather Empirical Evidence: Information Gained From Direct Observation and Measurement

1:44

To Gather Data: Observed Facts

1:56

What Is Science?

2:03

Exploring What Is True

2:23

Systematic Observation and Experimentation For Answering Scientific Questions

3:04

Precise Definitions

3:11

Testing Hypotheses

3:14

Replication of Results

3:22

Objectivity as a Goal -- Reduction of Bias

3:33

Critical Thinking

3:42

The Ability and Willingness To Assess Claims and Make Objective Judgments On the Basis of Well-Supported Reasons and Evidence, Rather Than Emotion or Anecdote

3:50

Analyzing, Evaluating, and Synthesizing Information

4:47

Imperative For Use in All Science (And, Well, Life, Really)

5:42

Critical Thinking: Key Principles

5:48

Few Truths Transcend the Need for Empirical Testing

5:52

Evidence Varies in Quality

5:56

Authority or Claimed Expertise Does Not Automatically Make an Idea True

6:14

Guidelines

7:08

Goals of Psychology

9:59

Description of Behaviors: Naming and Classifying Various Observable, Measurable Behaviors

10:18

Understanding: The Causes of Behavior(s) And Being Able to State the Cause(s)

11:13

Prediction: Predicting Behavior Accurately

11:26

Control: Altering Conditions That Influence Behaviors in Predictable Ways

11:46

The Scientific Method

14:14

Six Basic Elements

14:16

Steps in Scientific Method

14:50

Flowchart Example

14:52

Another Way to Examine Process

16:07

Flowchart Example

16:09

Some Terms

18:23

Hypothesis: A Statement That Attempts to Predict or to Account For a Set of Phenomena; Scientific Hypotheses Specify Relationships Among Events or Variables and are Empirically Tested

18:25

Hypothesis Testing: Scientifically Testing Predicted Outcome of an Experiment or an Educated Guess About the Relationship Between Variables

18:42

Operational Definition: Defines a Scientific Concept By Stating Specific Actions or Procedures Used To Measure the Process, Behavior, or Phenomenon

19:02

Theory

23:20

NOT the Popular Idea of What a Theory is, I Have a Theory About Why…

23:28

A System of Ideas That Interrelates Facts and Concepts, Summarizes Existing Data, and Predicts Future Observations

23:43

Naturalistic Observation

25:02

Observing a Person or an Animal in the Environment in Which It Lives

25:08

Advantages

25:20

Disadvantages

26:25

Anthropomorphic Fallacy

27:39

A Fallacy is an Error in Thinking

27:43

Anthro Refers to Humans

27:50

Morphic is Related to Change

27:54

Attributing Human Thoughts, Feelings, or Motives to Animals, Especially as a Way of Explaining Their Behavior (e.g. Mohini, My Cat, is Acting Like That Because She is Feeling Depressed Today.)

28:01

Laboratory Observation

29:14

Creates a Scenario Where Controlled Conditions Are Available and a Situation is Set Up and Behaviors Are Observed

29:17

Advantages:

30:27

Disadvantages:

31:54

Case Study/Case History

32:31

Examination of One Individual in Great Detail -- Utilizing Interviews, Psych-Tests, and More

32:36

Advantages

36:49

Disadvantages

37:45

Psychological Tests

38:08

Using a Reliable, Valid, and Typically Paper/Pencil Test to Measure Some Aspect of Personality, Aptitude, Skill, Achievement, or Dysfunction. Must Be Standardized, Normed, Reliable and Valid

38:12

Advantages

38:39

Disadvantages

38:45

e.g. Myers-Briggs, Rorschach Ink Blot, TAT, MMPI, WISC/WAIS-IQ, SAT, etc.

38:58

Surveys

39:32

Method of Asking Questions About Attitudes, Experiences, Preferences, and Behaviors That Can Accumulate Large Data Sets. Need Representative Samples (Sample Population)

39:35

Advantages

39:47

Disadvantages

41:28

e.g. U.S. Census is World's Largest Survey

43:11

Courtesy Bias

43:59

Problem in Research; A Tendency to Give Polite or Socially Desirable Answers

44:08

Review Questions

44:55

How Is Psychology Scientific?

45:00

How are Hypotheses More Than Just Educated Guesses?

45:14

Which Method…

45:42

How Can We Reduce Bias In Surveys?

46:34

How Critical a Thinker Are You? Are You Willing to Practice?

46:46

Review Questions

47:58

What is a Scientific Theory?

48:00

What is a Scientific Hypothesis?

48:09

Why Are Operational Definitions Important?

48:18

Give One Advantage and One Disadvantage For Each of the Following Methods

48:25

Research Methods: Correlation

12m 38s

Intro

0:00

Correlation Overview

0:14

Correlations

0:32

Helps Identify Relationships Worth Knowing About

0:33

Helps Make Predictions

0:38

If Correlation Exists Then the Two Variables are Related

0:46

Correlation Does NOT Equal Causation

0:55

A Third or Extraneous Variable Can Create the Appearance of a Correlation Between Two Unrelated Variables

1:10

Correlation Only Indicates the Strength of Relationship Between Two Variables.

1:15

Correlation

1:24

Indicates Positive or Negative Relationship Between Variables.

1:26

Positive Correlation: Presence of One Variable Predicts the Presence of Another

1:33

Negative Correlation: Presence of One Variable Predicts the Absence of Another

1:42

Characteristics of Correlation

2:01

Describes Strength of Relationship

2:02

Measured by Formula; Result Always Between -1 and +1

2:09

Statistically Impossible For Value to be Greater Than +1 or Less Than -1.

2:27

Regardless of Being Positive or Negative The Stronger Correlation Value is the One Furthest From Zero

2:51

Look for Association or Relationship Between Two Variables to Determine Correlation

3:28

Formula

4:19

Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient

4:23

Sign (+/-) Indicates Nature of Relationship, Number Determines Its Strength

4:32

Causation

4:57

Remember Correlation Does Not Equal Causation

4:59

An Existing Strong Relationship Doesn't Mean One Creates the Other

5:02

Example: The Relationship Between Crime and Unemployment

5:09

Third or Extraneous Variable May Cause the Appearance of a Strong Correlation

5:20

Terms

5:36

Scatterplot and Scattergram Mean the Same Thing

5:41

Drawn Demonstration of What a Scatterplot Looks Like

5:46

Characteristics of Scatterplot Showing Perfect Positive or Negative Correlation

6:12

Terms

6:44

Positive Correlation: Increases in One Measure (X) Matched by Increases in Another (Y)

6:46

Example: Relationship Between Smoking Cigarettes and Contracting Lung Cancer

6:53

Zero correlation: No Relationship Exists Between Two Variables

6:59

Example: Correlation Between Hair Color and IQ Score

7:13

Terms

7:23

Negative (Inverse) Correlation: As Values of One Measure Increase (X), Values of Another (Y) Decrease.

7:24

Example: The More Alcohol You Drink, the Lower Your Score on a Coordination Test Will Be

7:32

Scatterplots for correlations

7:43

Strong Positive Correlation Scatterplot Will Have Points Running Upwards Closely Along a 45 Degree Angle Line

7:47

Strong Negative Correlation Will Have Points Running Downwards Closely Along a 45 Degree Angle Line.

7:55

Examples of Scatterplots Showing Weak Positive Correlation, Zero Correlation, Moderate Negative Correlation and Weak Negative Correlation

7:59

Google Search for Positive Correlation

8:41

Examples of images of charts showing different degrees of positive correlation

8:43

Google Search for Negative Correlation

8:53

Examples of Charts Showing Different Degrees of Negative Correlation

8:54

Google Search for Zero Correlation

9:08

Examples of Charts Showing Zero Correlation Between Two Variables

9:09

Examples (Use the Thumb Method)

9:22

Which Examples Demonstrate Positive, Negative, and Zero Correlation?

9:23

Review Questions

11:15

What Kinds of Correlations Are Likely With The Relationships Below?

11:17

The Experimental Process & Ethical Guidelines

36m 20s

Intro

0:00

Objectives

0:15

Describe how Research Design Drives the Reasonable Conclusions That Can Be Drawn (e.g. Experiments are Useful for Determining Cause And Effect; The Use of Experimental Controls Reduces Alternate Explanations

0:19

Identify Independent, Dependent, Confounding, and Control Variables In Experimental Designs

0:36

Distinguish Between Random Assignments of Participants to Conditions in Experiments and Random Selection of Participants, Primarily in Correlational Studies and Surveys

0:44

Objectives, Cont.

0:57

Predict the Validity of Behavioral Explanations Based on the Quality of Research Design (e.g., Confounding Variables Limit Confidence in Research Conclusions).

1:00

Discuss the Value of Reliance on Operational Definitions and Measurement in Behavioral Research

1:10

The Experiment: Searching for Causes

1:23

Experimental Variables

1:45

Experimental and Control Conditions

1:48

Experimenter Effects

1:50

Advantages and Limitations of Experiments

1:52

An Experiment

1:55

A Controlled Test of a Hypothesis in Which the Researcher Manipulates One Variable to Discover Its Effect on Another.

1:59

To Identify Cause-And-Effect Relationships, We Conduct Experiments

2:43

Disadvantages

3:10

Some Vocabulary

3:34

Hypothesis: A Statement That Attempts to Predict an Outcome Within the Confines of the Experiment -- How the Manipulation of the Independent Variable Changes the Dependent Variable. To Make It Easier, Put it In a Conditional Format, If, Then

3:38

Independent Variable: A Variable That an Experimenter Manipulates.

4:18

Dependent Variable: A Variable That an Experimenter Predicts Will Be Affected By Manipulations of the Independent Variable

4:24

Unwanted Variables -- Extraneous Variables: Conditions That a Researcher Wants To Prevent From Affecting The Outcomes of the Experiment (e.g., Number of Hours Slept Before the Experiment)

4:34

More Concepts

5:15

Random Selection -- Choosing Subjects for the Experiment Without Bias -- Often Using a Random Number Table or Other Randomizing Procedure

5:18

Random Assignment -- Choosing Which Group, The Experimental or Control Group Each Subject Goes To

6:37

Randomness is a Procedure That Creates the Attempt to Limit Bias and Create Representativeness

7:42

A Graphic Overview

8:31

Chart

8:34

If One Eats Peanuts, One Will Recall Better

12:06

Chart

12:08

Practice -- Caffeine and Memory

14:16

Chart

14:18

Practice -- Sleep and Reaction Time

17:29

Chart

17:31

Potential Biases

21:05

Experimenter Effects -- This is When The Experimenter Unconsciously Pushes Subject into a Particular Response

21:08

Changes in Behavior Caused by the Unintended Influence of the Experimenter

21:14

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A Prediction That Leads People to Act in Ways to Make the Prediction Come True

21:19

Single Blind Experiment: Only the Subjects Have No Idea Whether They Get Real Treatment or Placebo

21:56

Double Blind Experiment: The Subjects AND The Experimenters Have No Idea Whether the Subjects Get Real Treatment or Placebo

22:18

Evaluating Results in an Experiment

22:54

Statistically Significant: Results Gained Would Occur Very Rarely by Chance Alone, Usually Less Than Five Experiments Out of 100

22:59

Meta-Analysis: Study of Results of Other Studies

23:52

Placebo Effect

25:15

Changes in Behavior That Result From Belief That One Has Ingested a Drug

26:11

Ethics/Ethical Responsibility

28:28

No Coercion -- Participation Must Be Voluntary

28:39

Doctrine of Informed Consent -- Must Be Volunteer and Know Enough to Intelligently Decide About Participating

28:45

Anonymity or Confidentiality of Participants

29:29

Respecting Dignity and Welfare of Human Subjects

29:43

Protection From Physical or Emotional Risk -- Temporary Discomfort OK, But Not Long-Term Harm

29:48

Ability to Withdraw at Any Time

30:20

Deception of Subjects Can Be OK

30:28

Debriefing -- Done After Experiment -- Explains True Purpose of Study and If Any Deceptions

30:35

Experimenting on Animals

30:43

Humans are Similar to Other Animals in Many Ways

30:47

Two Extreme Options -- Do No Testing or Test in Any Way We Want, Without Constraint

31:17

Researchers Must (APA 2002) Ensure the Comfort, Health, and Humane Treatment of Animals and of Minimizing Infection, Illness, and Pain of Animal Subjects.

31:28

Must Have a Clear Scientific Purpose

31:49

Must Answer a Specific, Important Scientific Question

31:51

Animals Chosen Must be Best Suited for the Question

31:55

Animals Must Be Acquired Legally (Accredited Companies or Trapped Humanely, if Wild)

32:00

Practice Questions

32:06

To Understand In-Depth a Particular Individual or Family By Using Many Different Tools

32:13

To Watch a Person or People and Describe What They Do -- Often Involves Keeping Counts of Particular Behaviors

32:29

To Examine the Strength of Relationship Between Two or More Variables

32:50

Using Controlled Methods, Create a Situation Where the Researcher Can Measure Cause and Effect by Applying the Independent Variable With the Experimental Group and Comparing Results With a Control Group.

33:01

Practice Questions

33:31

To Find Out a Lot of People's Views, Attitudes, Experiences or Feelings About Some Aspect of Their Lives

33:35

To Use a Manipulated Situation to See What People Will Do in That Situation

34:08

Professor Xavier is Interested in Understanding the Relationship Between Self-Esteem and Social Anxiety

34:26

Dr. Jones Wishes to Investigate the Effects of a New Training Program on Employees' Job Performances

34:43

Professor Smith Wishes to Study the Effects of Food Deprivation on Learning in Rats

35:25

Dr. Watusi is Interested in Studying Peer Influence Among High School Students. He Decides to go to Several Local High Schools and Observe Students Over the Course of Several Weeks.

35:41

Research Methods: Statistics

37m 16s

Intro

0:00

Objectives

0:22

Distinguish the Purposes of Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics

0:26

Apply Basic Descriptive Statistical Concepts, Including Interpreting and Constructing Graphs, and Calculating Simple Descriptive Statistics (e.g. Measures of Central Tendency, Standard Deviation)

0:34

Types of Statistics

0:50

Descriptive Statistics: Summarize Numbers So They Become More Meaningful and Easier to Communicate To Other People

0:52

Inferential Statistics: Used For Making Decisions, For Generalizing From Small Samples, and For Drawing Conclusions

1:09

Number Scales -- Nominal

1:30

No Quantitative Properties

1:48

For Comparison Only -- Grouping Participants

1:51

E.g. a Likert Scale (e.g. On a Scale From 1-5) on Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree Scale

1:55

Number Scales

2:34

Ordinal Scales

2:36

Determining Ranking

2:39

E.g. Seeds in NCAA Basketball Tournament

2:45

The Differences Between Seeds Has No Information Beyond the Ranking

2:48

Differences Between Rankings Not Equal -- Difference Between #1 and #4 Is Not The Same As Between #5 and #8

2:54

#1 Seed is NOT 4 Times Better Than #4 Seed

2:56

Number Scales -- Interval

3:14

Lots of Data and Can Add/Subtract

3:19

Classic e.g. is Temperature

3:25

SAT or ACT Scores

3:28

IQ Scores, Myers-Briggs, and Others Operate Under the Assumption of an Interval Scale

3:37

Do NOT Have a True Zero Point

3:47

Number Scale -- Ratio

3:55

Contain the Most Amount of Quantitative Information

4:02

Have a True Zero Point

4:00

E.g. Speed, Time, Weight, Distance

4:23

Can Meaningfully Describe Something as Twice as Fast or Four Times as Long

4:33

Graphical Representations

4:55

Presenting Numbers Pictorially (Usually in a Graph) So They Are Easier to Visualize

4:58

Frequency Distribution: Table That Divides an Entire Range of Scores Into a Series of Equal Classes and Then Records The Number of Scores That Fall Into Each Class

5:43

Histogram: Graph of a Frequency Distribution; Scores Are Represented By Vertical Bars

6:51

Frequency Polygon: Graph of a Frequency Distribution Where The Number of Scores In Each Class Is Represented By Points on a Line

6:56

Frequency Distribution

7:16

Graphic

7:18

Frequency Histogram

7:59

Graphic

8:01

Frequency Polygon

8:41

Graphic

8:43

Descriptive Statistics

9:17

Describing Data

9:22

Measures of Central Tendency

9:37

Mean

9:41

Mean (Arithmetic Average)

9:45

Mean: Add All the Scores For Each Group and Then Divide By the Total Number of Scores; One Type of Average

9:51

Median

11:57

Median (Middle Score)

11:59

Median: Arrange Scores From Highest to Lowest and Then Select The Score That Falls in The Middle; Half the Values Fall Above the Median, And Half Fall Below It

12:05

Mode

13:18

Mode (Occurs the Most)

13:20

Mode: Identifies the Most Frequently Occurring Score in a Group

13:26

A Number That Describes a Typical Score Around Which the Other Scores Fall

13:36

Measures of Variability

13:50

Variability -- How Spread Out or Compressed a Set of Scores Are -- Level of Dispersion

13:51

Range -- Of a Set of Data, The Range is the Difference Between the High and Low Values

14:01

Standard Deviation -- Represented by the Symbol σ

14:23

Measures of Variability

14:56

Normal Curve (Bell Shaped)

14:58

How Do We Visualize the Variability With a Normal Curve?

15:03

Deviations and Percentages -- Need to Become Familiar With Them

15:10

Z-Score: Indicates How Many Standard Deviations Above or Below The Mean a Score Is

15:16

Normal Curve: Bell Shaped Curve, With a Large Number of Scores in the Middle, and Very Few Extremely High and Low Scores

16:03

Normal and Skewed Curves

16:13

Examples of Negatively Skewed, Normal, and Positively Skewed Curves

16:24

Standard Deviation

17:50

Graphic of Bell Curve Displaying How To Measure Standard Deviations

17:53

Normal Curve

20:45

Graphic Showing Different Measurements of Ranges That Can Be Used With a Normal Curve

20:48

IQ Scores and S.D.

22:36

Always Assume That the Mean/Median/Mode is 100 for an IQ Score -- and That It's a Normal Curve

22:41

So if x̅ (the mean) is 100, the S.D. is 15, What is John's IQ if he is 2 S.D.s Above The Mean?

22:53

Lots of Questions Like This on the AP Exam

24:48

Examples of Standard Deviation Problems

24:56

What if the Mean is Not 100?

24:59

E.g. Mean is 85 and the S.D. is 6

25:02

E.g. Mean is 45 and the S.D. is 3

26:18

Inferential Statistics

28:38

Purpose is to Determine Whether or Not Findings Can Be Applied to the Larger Population From Which the Sample Was Selected

28:45

Infer versus Imply (Joey on Friends)

29:03

Why Might There Be Differences Between Two Groups in an Experiment?

30:12

Inferential Statistics

30:30

Population: Entire Set of Subjects, Objects, or Events of Interest (All Married Students in the United States)

30:34

Samples: Smaller Cross Section of a Population

30:59

Inferential Statistics

31:51

Sample Must Be Representative

31:54

Members of Sample Must Be Chosen Randomly

32:05

Statistical Significance: Degree to Which an Event (Results of an Experiment, Results of a Drug Trial) is Unlikely to Have Occurred By Chance Alone

32:33

Many Statistical Tests to Measure Magnitude of Difference --> T-Tests, Chi Square, and ANOVAs

32:46

AP Psych--- Need Only to Know -- P-Value

33:01

P-Value

33:13

The Smaller the P-Value, The More Significant the Results

33:15

In Science, a P-Value of .05 is Cutoff for Statistical Significance

33:19

A P-Value of .05 Means That a Five Percent Chance Exists That the Results Occurred By Chance

33:31

A P-Value of .01 Means That a One Percent Chance Exists That the Results Occurred By Chance

33:49

Most Psychological Research Will Be at the .05 Level

34:06

Review Questions

34:12

What is the Best Way to Choose Subjects?

34:16

Distinguish Between Descriptive and Inferential Stats

34:28

Distinguish Among Mean, Median and Mode

35:07

What is the Purpose of the Standard Deviation

36:12

How Does Random Selection Increase the Importance of the Results of a Study?

36:37

Section 3: Biological Bases

Biological Bases of Behavior

23m 37s

Intro

0:00

Biological Bases of Behavior (8 - 10%)

0:23

Physiological Techniques (e.g. Imaging, Surgical)

0:44

Neuroanatomy

0:46

Functional Organization of Nervous System

0:50

Neural Transmission

0:52

Endocrine System

0:54

Genetics

0:58

Evolutionary Psychology

0:59

We Examine the Relationship Between Physiological Processes and Behavior -- Including the Influence of Neural Function, the Nervous System and the Brain, and Genetic Contributions to Behavior

1:09

Physiological Techniques

1:19

Ways to Approach the Brain

1:21

Brain Scans

1:25

Surgery

1:34

EEG -- Electroencephalogram

1:42

An Amplified Recording of the Waves of Electrical Activity That Sweep Across the Brain's Surface. These Waves are Measured by Electrodes Placed on the Scalp.

1:46

EEG -- Electroencephalogram

2:17

Picture of Person Wearing Recording Cap Used During EEG

2:19

EEG in Sleep

2:52

Image of Brain Waves Recorded With EEG During Sleep

3:05

MRI -- Magnetic Resonance Imaging

3:25

A Technique That Uses Magnetic Fields and Radio Waves to Produce Computer-Generated Images of Soft Tissue. MRI Scans Show Brain Anatomy

3:33

MRI -- Soft Tissue

4:05

Picture of Brain Through an MRI

4:06

MRI

4:43

Picture of Brain Through an MRI

4:44

fMRI (Functional MRI)

5:20

A Technique for Revealing Blood Flow and, Therefore, Brain Activity by Comparing Successive MRI Scans. fMRI Scans Show Brain Function

5:30

fMRI (Functional MRI)

5:43

Images of Brain Using fMRI

5:45

PET (Positron Emission Tomography)

6:22

A Visual Display of Brain Activity That Detects Where a Radioactive Form of Glucose Goes While the Brain Performs a Given Task.

6:29

CT (Computerized Tomography)

7:48

A Series of X-Ray Photographs Taken From Different Angles and Combined by Computer Into a Composite Representation of a Slice Through the Body.

7:54

Also Called CAT Scan

7:50

CT Scan

8:07

Images of Brain Using CT Scan

8:09

Physical Techniques

8:39

Surgery and Other Invasive Techniques

8:48

Case Studies

8:53

Lesion

8:59

Tissue Destruction; A Brain Lesion is a Naturally or Experimentally Caused Destruction of Brain Tissue

9:01

Lobotomy

10:59

Also Known as Prefrontal Lobotomy

11:02

Removing/Disconnecting the Front of the Frontal Lobe of the Brain -- Used Primarily on Schizophrenics in the 1930s - 1950s

11:06

More Detail in the Treatments of Mental Disorders Unit

12:56

Hemispherectomy

12:57

Used for Patients who Have Rasmussen's Syndrome, a Type of Epilepsy That Is Not Treatable With Medication

13:03

Best Used on Children -- More Plasticity

14:26

Made Famous by Jodi Miller in a Documentary About Her Condition

13:14

Case Study

15:27

Phineas Gage

15:31

Gage Representations

17:08

Diagrams of How Rail Impaled Gage's Head

17:09

Gage Photo

17:48

Photo of Phineas Gage After Accident

17:49

The Endocrine System and Behavior

18:11

Nervous System -- Via Brain/Spinal Cord and Nerves

18:23

Endocrine System -- Via Bloodstream and Hormones

18:30

The Brain and the Endocrine System

18:34

Hypothalamus Signals Pituitary Gland

18:47

Pituitary Signals Various Glands Via Bloodstream With Hormones

18:51

Endocrine System Slower to Operate than NS and has Longer Lasting Effects

18:58

Major Glands and Hormones

19:13

Diagram of Various Glands and the Hormones They Create and Secrete

19:15

Endocrine Alimentary System

20:35

Diagram of Various Organs and the Hormones They Create and Secrete

20:39

Reproductive

21:31

Diagram of Female Reproductive System

21:32

Review

22:01

Which Brain Technique:

22:05

Hormones -- Locations and Functions

22:51

Biological Bases of Behavior: Neuroanatomy & Organization of the Nervous System

56m 59s

Intro

0:00

The Brain

0:29

Weight = 1300 - 1400 grams (about 3 - 3.5 pounds)

0:32

Pudding

0:50

500 Billion Neurons

1:05

Each Neuron May be Connected (Through a Synapse) to up to 10,000 Other Neurons

1:08

Has Plasticity

1:24

It's The Weirdest Thing in the Universe

2:22

The Nervous Systems

3:06

Graphic Showing How Various Nervous Systems in the Body Work With Each Other

3:08

The Nervous System

7:44

Graphic of Overall Nervous System

7:46

Brain Parts: What You Need to Know

8:38

Hindbrain (Top of the Spinal Cord; Life Support)

8:49

Thalamus

9:53

Midbrain -- Numerous Brain Parts Connecting the Hindbrain and the Forebrain -- Includes Vision and Movement

9:57

Forebrain

10:24

Brain Parts: What You Need to Know

11:12

Getting to the Brain

11:14

Hair, Skin, Fatty Tissue, Muscle, and Connective Tissue

11:16

Skull

11:41

CSF (Cerebral Spinal Fluid)

11:51

Meninges (Three Protective Layers)

12:18

Dura Mater, Pia Mater, Arachnoid

12:22

Sulcus/Sulci and Gyrus/Gyri -- Grooves and Peaks

13:15

Neurogenesis -- Formation of New Neurons

14:45

Plasticity -- Ability of Brain's Functions to Reorganize

14:57

Brain Parts: Cerebrum/Cerebral Cortex

15:09

Diagram of Different Parts of the Human Brain

15:10

Three Ways to View Brains -- Cross Sections

18:55

Diagrams of the Sagittal View, the Horizontal View, and the Coronal View

18:58

Brain Parts: Cerebrum/Cerebral Cortex

19:35

Brain Parts

19:38

Aphasia

22:55

All Functions for AP Psych-Will Be Oversimplified

23:52

The Brain

24:07

Diagram of The Parts of the Brain and What Their Primary Purpose Is

24:10

Medulla, Pons, and Cerebellum

25:32

Medulla -- Breathing and Heart Rate

25:40

Pons -- Named After Latin Word for Bridge

25:50

Cerebellum -- Little Brain

26:18

Limbic System

27:06

Diagram of the Limbic System

27:08

Limbic System

30:17

Thalamus -- All Senses Except Smell

30:20

Hypothalamus -- Hunger, Thirst, Body Temp., and Sexual Arousal

30:23

Amygdala -- Fear and Aggression, Emotions - (4 Fs) - Fighting, Fleeing, Food and Mating

30:30

Hippocampus -- Memory

30:45

Basal Ganglia -- Habits

30:49

One View of the Brain

30:56

Diagram of the Human Brain

30:58

Sensory Homunculus

32:09

Picture of Sculpture Showing How Much Brain Power and Space in The Brain is Devoted to the Function of the Parts of the Body

32:37

Sensory Homunculus

33:53

Diagram of Functions of the Somatosensory Strip and Motor Strip of the Brain

33:55

Broca's and Wernicke's Area

34:32

Diagram of The Parts of the Brain and What Their Primary Purpose Is

34:37

Paul Broca

36:14

Worked With Patients Who Had Aphasia (Inability to Speak)

36:17

Discovered Brain Region That Bears His Name -- Lesions Created Aphasia

36:25

First Anatomical Proof of Localization of Brain Function

36:30

Carl Wernicke

36:48

Followed Broca's Research

36:50

Receptive Aphasia in the Posterior, Superior Temporal Gyrus of the Left Hemisphere

36:54

Wernicke Aphasia = Inability to Understand Speech

37:05

Brain Regions Review

37:24

Graphic of Side View of Brain, Review of Its Different Areas

37:27

One View of the Brain

38:54

Diagram of Brain

38:57

Review of Brain Functions

40:03

Visual Processing

40:06

Memory

40:13

Thought Process

40:15

Dealing With Sensory Information

40:21

Balance and Fine Motor Coordination

40:31

Emotional Responses, Esp. Fear

40:35

Breathing and Heart Rate

40:40

Sensory Relay Station

40:46

Sense of Smell

40:54

Connects the Two Hemispheres

40:58

Location of Motor Cortex

41:05

Attention

41:10

Hunger/Thirst

41:21

Physiological Arousal

41:30

Body Senses

41:48

Speaking

41:56

Comprehending Language

42:00

Impairment of Language

42:03

The Divided Brain

42:12

Brain Lateralization

42:19

Hemispheric Specialization

42:21

Vogel and Bogen, Sperry

42:30

Roger Sperry

42:42

Neural Specificity and Regeneration Studies -- i.e. Neurons had Specific Functions

42:45

1981 Nobel Prize -- Split-Brain Research With Hubel and Wiesel

42:59

Severing Corpus Callosum -- Hemispheres Can Not Communicate

43:46

Gazzaniga Was Student

43:52

Split Brain

43:59

A Condition Resulting From Surgery That Isolates the Brain's Two Hemispheres by Cutting the Fibers (Mainly of the Corpus Callosum) Connecting Them

44:03

Michael Gazzaniga

44:17

Cognitive Neuroscience

44:19

Work in Split-Brain Research in Humans

44:24

Higher Brain Functioning and Lateralization of Brain Functioning -- How Each Side of Brain Has Primary Functions -- e.g. Left Side of Brain Handles Most Language Processing

44:27

Work is Cited in Intro Texts In Divided Brain Sections

44:53

Alien Hand Syndrome In Split-Brain Patients

45:00

Visual Pathways

46:27

Graphic of How Brain and Eyes Work Together to See

46:29

Split-Brain Outcomes

49:27

Graphic Depicting Split-Brain Test

49:30

Brain Lateralization

50:12

Diagram of Left and Right Brain Aptitudes

50:27

Hemispheric Dominance

51:54

Left Side

51:58

Words

51:59

Letters

51:59

Language/Sounds

52:00

Verbal Memory

52:01

Speech, Grammar, Writing, Arithmetic

52:04

Logic

52:06

Explaining Events

52:07

Right Side

52:51

Faces

52:56

Emotional Cognition

52:58

General Patterns

53:08

Non-Language Sounds

53:11

Music

53:14

Emotional Tone of Speech

53:17

Geometry

54:13

Sense of Direction

54:16

Judgment of Distance

54:17

Mental Rotation of Objects

54:18

Review

54:37

Which Brain Parts Will Likely Deal With the Following Functions?

54:49

Neurons, Neurotransmitters, and Neural Communication

40m 38s

Intro

0:00

Objectives

0:16

Identify Basic Processes and Systems in the Biological Bases of Behavior, Including Parts of the Neuron and the Process of Transmission of a Signal Between Neurons

0:18

Discuss the Influence of Drugs on Neurotransmitters (e.g. Reuptake Mechanisms, Antagonists, and Agonists)

0:26

Neuron Parts

0:39

Dendrite

0:44

Cell Body

0:48

Axon

0:56

Myelin Sheath (Myelin)

1:04

Axon Branches = Terminal Branches

1:25

Terminal Buttons (End Buttons, Axon Terminal, Terminal Branches of Axon, Synaptic Knobs)

1:30

Vesicles = Synaptic Vesicles

1:52

Synapse = Synaptic Gap

1:56

Neural Impulse

1:59

Glial Cells: 10-50 x More Glial Cells Than Neurons; Housekeeping, Nutrition, and Support

2:10

Structure of a Typical Neuron

2:34

Diagram of Neuron and its Parts

2:35

Neuron Anatomy Quick Quiz

3:41

Label the Parts of the Neuron

3:43

Neural Conduction

4:43

Voltage

4:50

Resting Potential

4:55

Action Potential

5:03

Threshold

5:10

Refractory Period

5:25

All-or-None Response (Principle)

5:36

Depolarization

6:24

Repolarization

6:34

Firing of a Neuron

6:54

Firing of a Neuron

6:57

Technique to Recall Chemicals

9:13

Salty Banana -- What is This?

9:26

Salt is Na+. Bananas Have a Lot of Potassium K+

9:32

Electrical Nature of Neurons

10:37

Graph Showing Voltage Measurement of a Firing Neuron and at Rest

10:38

Neural Speed

11:58

Speed of a Neuron Impulse

12:02

Neural Speed

13:57

Class Demonstration

13:59

Three Conditions

14:16

The Neuron

16:32

Detailed Diagram of Parts of Neuron

16:36

Neuron and Synapse

18:17

Graphic of Neuron Transmission

18:18

Neural Reuptake (Recycling)

19:46

Graphic of Neuron Recycling Neurotransmitters Between Receptors

19:54

Neural Communication

21:42

Picture of How Neurons Communicate With Each Other

21:46

Nerves and Neurons

22:40

Nerves: Large Bundles of Axons

22:43

Myelin: Fatty Layer That Coats Some Axons

22:49

Neurotransmitters

23:43

Dopamine (DA)

23:53

Serotonin (5-HT)

23:54

Acetylcholine (ACh)

23:55

Epinephrine (NE)

23:57

Norepinephrine

23:58

GABA

23:59

Caution -- These Descriptions Are Oversimplified -- Reality is Much More Complex (As Will Be Your Biological Psych-Course at University)

24:05

Neurotransmitters

24:32

Acetylcholine: Activates Muscles

24:34

Dopamine: Muscle Control

24:45

Serotonin: Mood and Appetite Control

25:19

Dopamine

25:32

Pleasure Centers of Brain -- Nucleus Accumbens

25:34

Parkinson's -- Loss of Dopamine Generating Neurons

25:50

Schizophrenia -- Elevated Levels of Dopamine in Mesolimbic Pathway

26:11

Low Levels Assoc. With Addiction

26:29

Dopaminergic

26:34

Recent Research Show That It's Not the Actual Release Associated With Pleasure, But the Anticipation of Reward

26:53

Serotonin

27:28

Inhibitory Neurotransmitter

27:33

Connected to Mood and Emotion, Appetite and Sleep

27:40

Low Levels Associated With Depression, Anger-Control, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Suicide

27:48

Plays a Role in Perception (Think Raves, E, and Molly)

28:32

Dopamine and Serotonin Pathways

29:53

Picture of Brain and Dopaminerges System and Serotonerges System

29:55

Acetylcholine (ACh)

30:56

First Neurotransmitter Discovered

31:01

Both in Peripheral and Central NS

31:05

Primary Function is in Somatic Nervous System

31:09

Activates Muscles

31:13

Associated With Movement

31:25

Loss Associated With Alzheimer's

31:28

Epinephrine

31:34

Associated With Energy and Emergency Systems in the Endocrine System (Sympathetic NS)

31:41

Connected to Forming Memories

31:57

Related to Traumatic or Incidents With Really Strong Emotions

32:00

Norepinephrine

32:32

Part of Sympathetic Nervous System Response to Danger -- Fight or Flight Response

32:35

Increases Blood Pressure and Heart Rate, Releases Glucose Stores

32:42

Connected to Amygdala Function

32:50

GABA

33:06

Gamma Amino Butyric Acid

33:11

An Inhibitory Neurotransmitter -- Slows Things Down

33:16

Associated with Anxiety -- Too Little Associated With Anxiety Disorders

33:23

Glutamate

33:47

At This Point, Not on AP Exam as a Neurotransmitter

33:50

Plays Key Role in Long-Term Potentiation

33:55

Important for Learning and Memory

34:08

Other Neurotransmitters

34:19

Others Definitely Exist

34:24

Will Be Part of a BioPsych-Course

34:25

Do Not Worry About Them for AP Psych

34:28

Neural Regulators

34:35

Neuropeptides: Regulate Activity of Other Neurons

34:40

Neural Regulators

35:37

Agonist (Chemicals That Mimic the Actions of a Neurotransmitter)

35:39

Antagonist (Chemicals That Oppose the Action of a Neurotransmitter)

35:58

Excitatory Neurotransmitters: Chemicals Released From the Terminal Buttons of a Neuron That Excite the Next Neuron Into Firing

36:27

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters: Chemicals Released From the Terminal Buttons of a Neuron That Inhibit (Prevent) the Next Neuron Into Firing

36:36

Review

37:24

Neural Parts -- Direction of Signal

37:30

Action Potential

38:15

Neurotransmitters

38:40

Behavioral Genetics, Evolutionary Psychology, & Behavior

36m 10s

Intro

0:00

Behavioral Genetics

0:11

Objective: Discuss Psychology's Abiding Interest in How Heredity, Environment, and Evolution Work Together to Shape Behavior

0:16

What Influences do our Genetics Have on Our Behavior, Both as an Individual, as Well as in Groups?

0:24

Nature Versus Nurture

0:34

Nature Refers to Heredity, a Person's Biological Makeup

0:38

Nurture Refers to the Environment, a Person's Life Experiences, Family and Education

0:45

Heredity

0:58

Developmental Psychology: The Study of Progressive Changes in Behavior and Abilities

1:01

Heredity (Nature): Transmission of Physical and Psychological Characteristics From Parents to Their Children Through Genes

1:15

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): Molecular Structure Shaped Like a Double Helix That Contains Coded Genetic Information

1:25

Genome: The Entirety of an Organism's Hereditary Information (Includes Info Coded in DNA or RNA)

1:49

Genes

2:17

Genes: Specific Areas on a Strand of DNA That Carry Hereditary Information

2:23

Genetic Makeup

2:46

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is the Means by Which Heredity Characteristics Pass From One Generation to the Next

2:49

Fraternal Twins are Dizygotic Twins That Develop From the Union of Two Separate Sperms and Eggs

3:06

Identical Twins are Monozygotic Twins That Develop From the Union of the Same Egg and Sperm That Have Split and Have Exactly the Same Genotype (May Have the Same Genes, But Not Necessarily the Same Number of Copies of Those Genes)

3:28

Genetic Building Blocks

4:13

The Human Body Contains 100 Trillion Cells

4:16

There is a Nucleus Inside Each Human Cell (Except Red Blood Cells)

4:27

Each Nucleus Contains 46 Chromosomes, Arranged in 23 Pairs

4:34

One Chromosome of Every Pair is From Each Parent

4:49

The Chromosomes are Filled With Tightly Coiled Strands of DNA.

4:53

Genes are Segments of DNA That Contain Instructions to Make Proteins -- The Building Blocks of Life

4:59

Chromosomes

5:08

Picture of What is Inside a Chromosome

5:10

DNA

5:47

Linked Molecules (Organic Bases) Make Up the Rungs on DNA's Twisted Molecular Ladder. The Order of These Molecules Serves as a Code for Genetic Information

5:49

The Code Provides a Genetic Blueprint That is Unique for Each Individual (Except Identical Twins). The Drawing Shows Only a Small Section of a DNA Strand. An Entire Strand of DNA is Composed of Billions of Smaller Molecules

6:04

The Nucleus of Each Cell in the Body Contains Chromosomes Made up of Tightly Wound Coils of DNA.

6:25

Don't be Misled By the Drawing: Chromosomes are Microscopic in Size, and the Chemical Molecules That Make Up DNA are Even Smaller

6:41

Gene Patterns: Eye Color

7:01

Dominant and Recessive Traits

7:09

Gene Patterns for Children of Brown-Eyed Parents, Where Each Parent has One Brown-Eye Gene and One Blue-Eye Gene

7:12

Because the Brown Eye Gene is Dominant, One out of Every Four Children Will Be Blue-Eyed

7:22

There is a Significant Chance That Two Brown-Eyed Parents Will Have a Blue-Eyed Child

7:29

Dominant Recessive

7:43

Graphic Depicting All the Eye Color Combinations a Brown-Eyed Mother and Brown-Eyed Father Could Have

7:44

Temperament and Environment

9:53

Temperament: The Physical Core of Personality; Includes Sensitivity, Irritability, Distractibility, and Typical Mood

9:56

Easy Children: 40% Relaxed and Agreeable

10:09

Difficult Children: 10% Moody, Intense, Easily Angered

10:26

Slow-to-Warm-Up Children: 15% Restrained, Unexpressive, Shy

10:38

Remaining Children: Do Not Fit Into Any Specific Category

10:55

Environment

11:09

Environment (Nurture): All External Conditions That Affect a Person, Especially the Effects of Learning; the World Around a Person.

11:14

Sensitive Periods: A Period of Increased Sensitivity to Environmental Influences; Also a Time When Certain Events Must Occur for Normal Development to Take Place

11:27

Prenatal Issues

13:10

Congenital Problem: A Problem or Defect That Occurs During Prenatal Development; Birth Defect

13:14

Genetic Disorder: Problem Caused by Inherited Characteristics From Parents; e.g. Cystic Fibrosis, Neurofibromatosis

13:23

Website Link to Information on Genetic Disorders

13:56

Twin and Adoption Studies

14:14

Some Research Conclusions

14:19

Shared Genes Can Also Mean a Shared Experience -- Most, Not All, Identical Twins Share Placentas

14:25

A Person Whose Identical Twin Has Alzheimer's Has a 60% Chance of Getting It; Fraternal Twin, Only 30%.

14:44

On Extraversion and Neuroticism (Emotional Stability), Identical Twins are More Alike Than Fraternal Twins

14:58

Divorce -- If Fraternal Twin Divorced, Your Odds Increase 1.6 Times; If Identical Twin Divorced, Odds Go Up 5.5 Times

15:24

The Jim Twins

16:03

Separated at Birth -- Reconnected After 38 Years

16:09

Both Named Jim (Lewis and Springer)

16:13

Both Liked Woodworking, Driving their Chevy Cars, Watching Stock-Car Races, and Drinking Miller Lite.

16:19

Both Had Nearly Identical Voices

16:28

Personalities, Intelligence, Heart Rates and Brain Waves -- Nearly Identical

16:35

It Would Seem Genes Had a Profound Impact on Personality -- But the Question Remains to This Day -- Just How Much?

16:40

But This is Anecdote, What About Real Data?

16:52

Big Conclusion

17:00

The Environment Shared By A Family's Children Has Virtually No Identifiable Impact on Personalities of Children

17:04

But Why? Geneticists Are Working on It.

17:12

But What About Family Life?

17:47

So, The Question For You -- Would You Be the Same Person if You Had Been Raised in a Different Family or Culture?

17:56

Heritability

18:32

The Proportion of Variation Among Members of a Group That We Can Attribute to Genes

18:40

So This Compares, Within Populations, Genotypes (Genetic Makeup) and Phenotypes (The Outward, Physical Manifestation of the Organism) on Specific Traits

19:14

This Difference Involves Mathematics and Analysis That is Far Beyond This Course -- Take AP Bio or Genetics for Mendelian Genetics

19:34

Heritability

20:00

It is Not Behaviors That Are Inherited, But Genetic Predispositions That May Lead to the Behavior

20:03

Heritable Differences Between Individuals Does Not Imply Heritable Group Differences

21:23

Genes and Interaction

21:43

Interaction: The Interplay When the Effect of One Factor (Such as Environment) Depends on Another Factor (Such as Heredity)

21:47

Genes and Environment Work Together (Like Two Hands Clapping). Genes Code for Proteins But Also Respond to Environments

21:55

Example: Happy Baby Draws in More Adults Who Respond to the Happiness With Warmth of Their Own -- This Can Become a Cycle, With the Happy Baby Becoming More Outgoing and Socially Confident

22:39

This Kind of Interaction Can Be Applied to Virtually Any Trait, Especially Anxiety and Depression

23:17

Natural Selection and Adaptation

24:20

Only the Strong Survive is a Myth -- It's the Ones With the Most Adaptive Traits For Their Environment

24:25

Evolutionary Psychology: The Study of the Evolution of Behavior and the Mind, Using Principles of Natural Selection

24:42

Natural Selection: The Principle That, Among the Range of Inherited Trait Variations, Those That Lead to Increased Reproduction and Survival Will Most Likely Be Passed on to Succeeding Generations

24:55

Mutation: The Random Error in Gene Replication That Leads to Change

25:35

Evolutionary Psychology

25:50

Evolutionary Success Helps Explain Similarities Among People

25:54

However, We Have Some Outdated Tendencies -- Some Genetic Traits That Were Previously Helpful May Harm Us Today

26:42

Evolutionary Psychology, Continued

28:07

Examines Psychological Traits Such as Memory, Perception and Language Using Modern Evolutionary Perspective

28:10

Which Human Psychological Traits Are Evolved Adaptations -- That is, The Products of Natural or Sexual Selection?

28:18

Examples Could Include an Ability to Infer Emotions of Others, Discern Kin From Non-Kin, Identify and Prefer Healthier Mates, and Cooperate With Others

28:27

Sexual Adaptations

29:47

Both Men and Women Looking For Signs of a Healthy Potential Mate

29:50

Criticisms of Evolutionary Psychology

31:47

Looks at Modern Traits and Looks Backward to Propose an Explanation (Similar Criticism of Freud)

31:50

What About the Social Implications? What Does it Mean for Our Desire to Reduce Prejudice and Discrimination? What About Our Moral Responsibilities?

32:13

What About Cultural Differences That Seem to Work Against Evolutionary Explanations?

33:19

David Myers

33:50

One Quote of His I've Been Using for Years: Everything Psychological is Simultaneously Biological.

33:57

Review

34:39

What Are Genes and How Do Behavior Geneticists Explain Our Individual Differences?

34:43

What Is Heritability, and How Does it Relate to Individuals and Groups?

34:50

How Do Evolutionary Psychologists Use Natural Selection to Explain Behavior Tendencies?

35:02

How Might an Evolutionary Psychologist Explain Gender Differences in Sexuality and Mating Preferences?

35:09

Section 4: Senses and Perception

Thresholds & Signal Detection Theory

54m 3s

Intro

0:00

Sensation and Perception (6-8%)

0:09

Everything That Organisms Know About the World is First Encountered When Stimuli in the Environment Activate Sensory Organs, Initiating Awareness of the External World.

0:26

Perception Involves the Interpretation of the Sensory Outputs as a Cognitive Process

0:36

Discuss Basic Principles of Sensory Transduction, Including Absolute Threshold, Difference Threshold, Signal Detection and Sensory Adaptation.

0:42

Discuss How Experience and Culture can Influence Perceptual Processes (e.g. Perceptual Set, Context Effects)

0:53

General Properties of Sensory Systems

1:16

Data Reduction System: Any System That Selects, Analyzes, and Condenses Information

1:20

Perceptual Features: Basic Stimulus Patterns

1:57

Sensory Coding: Converting Important Features of the World Into Neural Messages Understood by the Brain

2:02

Sensation and Perception

2:12

Sensation: Information Arriving From Sense Organs (Eye, Ear, Etc.)

2:15

Perception: Mental Process of Organizing Sensations Into Meaningful Patterns

2:32

Terms

2:58

Psychophysics

3:02

Sensory Transduction

3:04

Absolute Threshold

3:05

Difference Threshold

3:06

Signal Detection

3:08

Sensory Adaptation

3:09

Bottom-Up Processing

3:10

Top-Down Processing

3:11

Weber's Law

3:13

Psychophysics

3:22

The Study of the Relationships Between the Physical Characteristics of Stimuli, Such as Their Intensity, and Our Psychological Experience of Them

3:24

Ernst Weber

4:24

A Founder of Modern Experimental Psych

4:30

Influenced Psychophysics

4:34

Studied Weight Perception and How There was a Proportional Relationship Between Increase of Magnitude of Weight and Ability to Make the Discrimination Between the Weights(Fechner Later Called it Weber's Law)

4:36

Weber-Fechner Law -- Ratio of Intensity to Have a Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

5:51

Studied Absolute Thresholds -- Our Awareness of Faint Stimuli

6:13

Gustav Fechner

6:29

Influenced Modern Experimental Psych

6:31

Founder of Psychophysics

6:34

Studied Absolute Thresholds -- Our Awareness of Faint Stimuli

6:36

Illustrated the Non-Linear Relationship Between Psychological Sensation and Physical Intensity of a Stimulus

6:43

Weber-Fechner Law -- Ratio of Intensity to Have a Just Noticeable Difference

7:19

Sensory Transduction

7:32

Conversion of One Form of Energy Into Another. In Sensation, The Transforming of Stimulus Energies, Such as Sights, Sounds, and Smells Into Neural Impulses Our Brains Can Interpret.

7:40

Absolute Threshold

8:22

The Minimum Stimulation Necessary to Detect a Particular Stimulus 50% of the Time

8:26

Exploited by Students Who May Use the Mosquito Ringtone to Evade Phone Use in Class

8:44

Vision -- Candle Flame Seen at 30 Miles on a Clear Dark Night

9:20

Hearing -- Tick of a Watch Under Quiet Conditions at 20 Feet (The Buzz of the Fluorescent Lights in a Quiet Room)

9:51

Taste -- One Teaspoon Sugar in 2 Gallons of Water

10:28

Smell -- One Drop Perfume Diffused Into a Three-Room Apartment

10:42

Touch -- A Bee's Wing Falling On Your Cheek from One Centimeter Above.

10:57

Difference Threshold

11:11

The Minimum Difference Between Two Stimuli Required for Detection. We Experience the Difference Threshold as a Just Noticeable Difference (JND).

11:14

The Detectable Difference Increases With the Magnitude -- is Done in a Constant Proportion

11:32

E.g. You Will Notice is One Ounce is Added to a 10 Ounce Weight, But Not if One Ounce is Added to a 100-Ounce Weight

11:38

Volume on the Television

12:11

Weber's Law

12:40

The Principle That, to be Perceived as Different, Stimuli Must Differ by a Constant Percentage (Rather Than a Constant Amount)

12:43

The Amount of Change Needed to Produce a Constant JND is a Constant Proportion of the Original Stimulus Intensity

12:56

Signal Detection

13:21

A Theory Predicting How and When We Detect the Presence of a Faint Stimulus (Signal) Amid Background Stimulation (Noise).

13:27

Assumes There is no Absolute Threshold and that Detection Depends Partly on a Person's Experience, Expectations, Motivation, and Alertness

13:38

Separating the Music From the Noise or the Signal From the Noise

13:53

Important Info Versus Background and Irrelevant

14:04

Sensory Adaptation

15:47

AKA Neural Adaptation

15:54

Neural or Sensory Receptors Change/Reduce Their Sensitivity to a Continuous, Unchanging Stimuli

16:04

This Occurs in the Brain at an Unconscious Level

16:11

E.g. The Smell of Your Own Car or Home

16:22

E.g. Adapting to Hot or Cold Water After a Brief Time in It.

17:12

E.g. The Eyes Adjusting to a Darker Room -- Rods and Cones Will Fire Differently to Adjust (Cones Take About 10 Minutes, the Rods 30 Minutes to Fully Adapt)

17:39

Why Certain Foods Do Not Taste the Same on the 20th Bite as They Did on the First

18:24

In Economics, This is Diminishing Marginal Utility

19:05

NOT The Same as Habituation (We Will Go Over That Later)

19:31

Top-Down Processing

19:42

Information Processing Guided by Higher-Level Mental Processes, as When We Construct Perceptions Drawing on Our Experience and Expectations

19:45

People Look at the Big Picture, the Whole, Try to Find Patterns to Make Meaning and Then Examine the Details (We Use Background Knowledge to Fill Gaps)

20:03

The Stroop Effect Was One Experiment That Dealt With This

20:18

Deductive Reasoning

21:54

Even Though the Second Letter in Each Word is Ambiguous, T-D Processing Allows for Context to Clarify For Us

22:03

Bottom-Up Processing (AKA Feature Analysis)

22:47

Analysis That Begins With the Sensory Receptors And Works Up to the Brain's Integration of Sensory Information

22:55

Works From the Details and Moves Out to the Whole Picture

23:06

Inductive Reasoning -- Going From the Examples First and Working One's Way Out to the General Propositions -- Uses Probabilities Based Upon Specific Observations

23:17

Based Upon Current Knowledge, So Potentially Biased (e.g. Confirmation Bias, Availability Heuristic, Illusory Correlation)

23:39

e.g. Since 100% of Bio Life Forms Depend on Liquid Water to Exist, if We Were to Discover a New Bio Form, It Will Probably Depend on Liquid Water to Exist

24:46

Man With Prosopagnosia

25:20

Sensation Chart Overview

27:06

Chart Looks at Sense, Stimulus, Sense Organ, Receptor, and Sensation

27:08

David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel

29:42

Nobel Prize with Wiesel and Sperry

29:49

Microelectrode in Cat Brain -- When Would Neurons Fire When Cat Presented With Simple Lines

30:05

Worked on Visual System Neurons and Processing Certain Neurons Responded Only to Certain Lines -- Simple Cells

30:36

Other Cells Detected Motion -- Complex Cells

30:52

Cats and Restricting Visual System

31:22

Showed How the Visual System Built an Image From Simple Stimuli by Combining Them Into More Complex Formats

31:25

Big Idea Here is Feature Detectors -- Certain Brain Cells Pick Up Certain Kinds of Visual Stimulation -- Vertical Lines, Curves. Motion, Etc.

31:01

Perceptual Set

31:51

A Mental Disposition to Perceive One Thing and Not Another

32:03

This Goes Back to the Simon and Garfunkel Song

32:12

We See What We Want to See

32:25

E.g. Friendliness Is Mistaken for Flirting if We Find The Other Person Attractive

32:34

Perceptual Set

34:29

Is This a Cloud or a Flying Saucer?

34:32

Perceptual Set -- Culture and Context Effects

35:34

Magic -- Creates Certain Expectations and Uses Movements to Distract the Eye

35:38

I am 6'3 -- When I'm Standing Next to 4th Graders, I Appear to be Huge. If at an NBA Game, I Look Pretty Small

36:13

Our Moods and Circumstances Can Create Some Top-Down Processing Errors -- Have You Ever Been in a Bad Mood and Thought Someone Slammed You But They Really Said Something Else?

37:08

Walter Cronkite Was Sailing Into a Port and Thought the Crowd was Saying Hello Walter Repeatedly. The Reality Was Low Water

37:33

Cultures -- Not All Cultures Perceive the Same Stimuli Equally -- Shaping Stereotypes, Directing Our Attention, and Telling Us What Is Important to Notice

38:04

Perceptual Set -- Culture and Context Effects

38:53

James Burke, an Historian, Had a Great Segment in The Day The Universe Changed -- We All See Our Own Witches -- We Change our Perceptions to Make it Fit the Reality of What We Think It Should Be

38:58

Rural Africans in One Study Live in an Environment Without Right Angles -- They Were Less Likely to Fall For the Muller-Lyer Illusion

40:47

Basic Illusions -- Muller-Lyer

41:12

Which of These Three Lines is Longer? (They are All The Same Length)

41:14

Basic Illusions -- Poggendorf

42:22

Is There One Straight Line or Two Line Segments on Each Side?

42:27

Basic Illusions -- Ponzo

43:19

Which Line Appears Longer? The one In Between Tracks or the One Lying Across It?

43:23

Basic Illusions -- Hermann Grid

44:06

The Appearance of White and Black Dots Moving Between Each Gray Line's Intersection

44:10

Attention

45:04

Selective Attention -- The Focusing of Conscious Awareness on a Particular Stimulus

45:10

Inattentional Blindness -- Failing to See Visible Objects When Our Attention is Directed Elsewhere

46:56

Change Blindness -- Failing to Notice Changes in the Environment

47:50

Perceptual Defense and Subliminal Perception

49:26

Subliminal Perception: Perception of a Stimulus Below the Threshold for Conscious Recognition

49:32

Review

51:26

What's the Difference Between Sensation and Perception?

51:29

What Process Does the Brain Have of Converting Wave Signals into Electrical Signals?

51:42

Science of Physical Properties and Human Perceptions is Called…?

52:08

Describe Absolute Threshold, Difference Threshold, and Weber's Law

52:27

Describe the Impact of Hubel and Weisel

52:58

How Do Perceptual Sets Alter Our Views as Compared to Reality?

53:15

Do We Really Share the Same Reality? Explain.

53:36

Visual Processes

52m 22s

Intro

0:00

Objectives

0:17

Describe Sensory Processes (e.g. Hearing, Vision, Touch, Taste, Smell, Vestibular, Kinesthesis, Pain), Including the Specific Nature of Energy Transduction, Relevant Anatomical Structures, and Specialized Pathways in the Brain for Each of the Senses

0:20

What Can We See?

0:40

Do You All See Those Two Large Black Circles?

0:48

Our Vision is Actually Upside Down, Blurry, and Riddled With Black Splotches

1:50

Our Brain Cleans it Up

2:07

Vision

2:12

What Can We Really See?

2:14

Do We Really See Each Other?

2:16

Light Comes to Us in Waves as Part of the Electromagnetic Spectrum (Vision, Hearing, and Touch -- The Energy Senses)

3:22

Wavelength (Distance From One Wave Peak to the Next)

3:38

Hue (The Color We Experience -- Blue, Green, Red)

4:03

Intensity (The Amount of Energy in the Wave -- Measured by Amplitude or Height)

5:10

Vision

5:24

Graphic of Measurement in Nanometers of Different Kinds of Light and Sound Waves

5:34

Wavelengths

10:58

Drawing Depicting Short Wavelengths (High Frequency and Bluish Colors) and Long Wavelengths (Low Frequency and Reddish Colors)

11:01

Wavelengths

11:20

Picture Showing Bright Colors Have a Greater Amplitude than More Dull Colors

11:22

Parts of the Eye

11:46

Lens: Structure in the Eye That Focuses Light Rays -- When it Does This = Accommodation

11:57

Photoreceptors: Light-Sensitive Cells in the Eye -- The Rods and Cones

12:18

Retina: Light-Sensitive Layer of Cells in the Back of the Eye

13:08

Easily Damaged from Excessive Exposure to Light (Staring at a Solar Eclipse)

13:16

Cornea: Transparent Membrane Covering the Front of the Eye; Bends Light Rays Inward

13:45

Eye Anatomy

14:45

Graphic Showing Location of Parts of the Eye

14:48

Anatomy of the Eye

17:47

Another View of the Parts of the Eye

17:50

The Retina and Photoreceptors

18:52

Picture of Photoreceptors

18:54

The Eye and Transduction

19:51

Light Waves Enter Through the Cornea (Outer Covering of the Eye)

19:55

Retina

20:15

Blind Spot

20:39

The Eye, Continued

21:07

Back of the Retina (The Light-Sensitive Inner Surface of the Eye, Containing the Receptor Rods and Cones Plus Layers of Neurons That Begin the Processing of Visual Information.)

21:09

Rods/Cones Transduce the Information Into Electrical Signals

21:19

Signals Go Through:

21:27

Steps of Light -- Cornea, Pupil, Lens, Retina Rods/Cones, Bipolar Cells, Ganglion Cells (Amacrine cells, Horizontal, and Muller cells)

21:37

The Eye and Transduction

22:05

Graphic Showing Path Light Takes Through the Eye to be Seen

22:07

Light Control

22:56

Visual Acuity: Sharpness of Visual Perception

22:59

Fovea: Area at the Center of the Retina Containing Only Cones -- When Focused Here, See Only Color

24:04

Peripheral Vision: Vision at Edges of Visual Field; Side Vision

24:14

Tunnel Vision: Loss of Peripheral Vision

27:15

Visual Information Processing

28:02

Feature Detectors: Nerve Cells in the Brain That Respond to Specific Features of the Stimulus, Such as Shape, Angle, or Movement.

28:08

Different Locations in the Brain Have Specialized Functions, e.g. Color, Form, Edge, Motion, Depth, Etc.

28:25

Saccade: Reflexive Movement of Eyes From Side to Side so that the Neurons Will Continue Firing and so Fill In Information Due to Blind Spot

30:04

Visual Acuity -- Snellen Test

31:55

Snellen Test is Another Name for an Eye Chart

31:59

Trichromatic Theory

33:46

The Trichromatic, or Young-Helmboltz, Theory

33:53

Color Vision Theory That Hypothesizes We Have Three Cone Types in the Retina: Red, Green, Blue

34:49

Most Researchers Conclude That This Theory Along With the Trichromatic Can Explain Color Vision -- Individually, Each is Lacking

36:11

Trichromatic Theory

36:28

The Trichromatic, or Young-Helmboltz, Theory

36:40

Color Vision Theory That Hypothesizes We Have Three Cone Types in the Retina: Red, Green, Blue

37:02

Trichromatic Theory

37:59

We See a Specific Color by Comparing Responses From 3 Kinds of Cones, Each Most Sensitive to a Short, Medium, or Long Wavelength of Light

38:02

Fewer Short Wavelength Cones (Blue) So We See Red, Yellow, and Green Colors Better

38:53

When All 3 Cones Are Equally Active, We See White or Gray

39:04

Incomplete Theory, e.g., Can't Explain Negative Color Afterimage

39:20

Opponent Process Theory

39:28

Color Vision Theory Based on Three Systems: Red or Green, Blue or Yellow, Black or White

39:32

Optical Illusion

41:11

Demonstration of Opponent Process Theory With Picture of Green, Black, and Yellow American Flag

41:13

Continuation of Illusion

42:13

Optical Illusion Continued: Staring at Black Dot on Picture on Last Slide Will Produce a Red, White, and Blue Flag on This Slide

42:17

Negative Afterimage

42:26

Why Did You See an American Flag When You Looked at the White Screen?

42:36

Color Vision Deficiency

43:14

Inability to Perceive Color Differences

43:23

Color Blindness

44:09

Inability to Perceive Colors; Lack Cones or Has Malfunctioning Cones

44:12

Color Weakness: Inability to Distinguish Some Colors

44:23

Ishihara Test

44:38

Test for Color Blindness and Color Weakness

44:41

Color Blindness

45:20

Pictures of Different Apples Viewed By A Trichromatic Color Viewer and One Who is Colorblind

45:22

Wiki Color Test

45:54

Demonstration of Test

45:57

Dark Adaptation

46:20

Increased Retinal Sensitivity to Light After Entering the Dark, Similar to Going From Daylight Into a Dark Movie Theater

46:27

Rhodopsin: Light-Sensitive Pigment in the Rods; Involved with Night Vision

46:40

Night Blindness: Blindness Under Low-Light Conditions; Hazardous for Driving at Night

47:01

Dark Adaptation

47:36

Graph Showing Length of Time it Takes Cones and Rods to Acclimate to the Dark

47:38

Review

49:22

What is the Order of Eye Parts That a Light Wave Travels Through Before it Gets to the Optic Nerve?

49:25

Describe What Transduction Is

50:01

Compare and Contrast (or Differentiate) the Two Theories of Color -- Trichromatic and Opponent-Process Theory

50:12

What Makes Someone Colorblind? What Do They See as Compared to Others?

50:29

What is the Electromagnetic Spectrum? Why Can We See Only Part of It?

51:05

Hearing

29m 57s

Intro

0:00

Hearing, Taste, Smell, Touch, Body Senses

0:18

Describe Sensory Processes, Including the Specific Nature of Energy Transduction, Relevant Anatomical Structures, and Specialized Pathways in the Brain for Each of the Senses

0:22

The Senses

0:40

Vision

0:46

Audition/Auditory

0:49

Olfaction/Olfactory

1:05

Gustation/Gustatory

1:11

Somesthetic/Skin Senses

1:17

Vestibular/Balance

1:30

Kinesthesis/Kinesthetic

1:34

Pain/Ouchies

1:45

Hearing

1:52

Audition: The Sense or Act of Hearing

1:55

Sound Waves: Rhythmic Movement of Air Molecules

2:01

Frequency: The Number of Complete Wavelengths That Pass a Point in a Given Time (i.e. Per Second, Measured in Megahertz)

2:41

Pitch: Higher or Lower Tone of a Sound: a Tone's Experienced Highness or Lowness; Depends on Frequency

2:54

Loudness: Sound Intensity

3:37

Hearing: Parts of the Ear

4:01

Pinna: External Part of the Ear

4:13

Auditory Canal

4:24

Tympanic Membrane: Eardrum

4:34

Auditory Ossicles: Three Small Bones That Vibrate; Link Eardrum With Cochlea

5:00

These Bones Concentrate the Vibrations of the Cardrum on the Cochlea's Oval Window

5:50

Transduction Occurs in the Cochlea (In the Cilia of the Basilar Membrane) Where the Signals are Sent to the Auditory Nerve

5:59

Ear Anatomy

6:26

Diagram of the Ear and Its Parts

6:29

Hearing: The Inner Ear

7:44

Oval Window

7:46

Cochlea: Snail Shaped Organ That Makes Up Inner Ear

7:53

Hair Cells (aka Cilia or Stereocilia): Receptor Cells Within Cochlea That Transduce Vibrations Into Nerve Impulses

7:58

Basilar Membrane: Inner Surface of Cochlea That Contains the Hair Cells -- Pressure of Fluid Moves the Fibers, Creating the Transduction to the Auditory Nerve

8:13

Semicircular Canals

8:49

Vestibular Sacs

8:50

Auditory Nerve

8:55

Auditory Cortex

9:05

Theories of Sound/Hearing

9:10

How Do We Hear Certain Pitches or Tones

9:14

Place Theory Says That Hair Cells in the Cochlea Respond to Different Frequencies of Sound Based Upon Where They Are in the Cochlea

9:19

Pitch Theory Indicates That Some Hair Cells Sense the Upper Range and Some Hair Cells Respond to the Lower Range.

10:00

Lower Tones are Sensed By the Rate at Which The Cells Fire. We Sense Pitch Because the Hair Cells Fire at Different Rates (Frequencies) in the Cochlea

10:08

Auditory Frequencies of Humans

10:29

Audible Range of Frequencies is Usually 20-20,000 Hz.

10:43

This Means 20 to 20K Vibrations Per Second

11:05

One Hertz is One Vibration Per Second

11:11

Ultrasound (Higher Frequency) -- We Cannot Perceive -- Beyond Our Upper Limit (e.g. Dog Whistle and Bats With Echolocation)

11:22

Infrasound (Lower Frequency) -- We Can Not Perceive

14:44

Diagram of Hearing Continuum -- What Humans Can and Can Not Hear

14:50

How Do We Detect Higher and Lower Sounds?

17:02

Frequency Theory: As Pitch Rises, Nerve Impulses of a Corresponding Frequency Travel Up the Auditory Nerve That Matches the Frequency of the Tone

17:12

This Enables Us To Perceive Pitch

17:22

Place Theory: Higher and Lower Tones Excite Specific Areas of the Cochlea -- See Previous Graphic

17:26

Examples: Singing and Pitch -- The Film Pitch Perfect Singing A Capella

17:35

Randy Jackson -- You're Pitchy, Dawg -- Pitch Not Identical to Frequency -- Pitch is Subjective

18:14

Decibels and Hearing

20:00

140 -- Rock Concert/Fireworks/Jet Takeoff

22:41

120 -- Dance Clubs, Chainsaw

21:53

110 -- Personal Stereo

21:48

100 -- Exercise Class, Video Arcade

21:39

90 -- Lawnmower, Most Motorcycles, Crying Child

21:16

80 -- Traffic Around Town, Old Style Phone Ring

20:50

60 -- Normal Conversation

20:38

40 -- Refrigerator, Quiet Living Room, Library

20:11

Conduction Deafness

24:23

Poor Transfer of Sounds From Tympanic Membrane to Inner Ear

24:29

Nerve Deafness

25:19

Caused by Damage to Hair Cells or Auditory Nerve

25:22

Hearing Aids Useless in These Cases, Since Auditory Messages Cannot Reach the Brain

25:33

Cochlear Implant: Electronic Device That Stimulates Auditory Nerves

25:39

Picture of Cochlear Implant Being Worn

25:41

Preventable Hearing Problems

26:17

Stimulation Deafness: Damage Caused by Exposing Hair Cells to Excessively Loud Sounds

26:21

e.g. Use of Earbuds, Sound is Too Loud

26:27

Natural Aging: Mosquito Ringtone

26:47

Review

28:23

What Are The Parts of the Ear?

28:26

In What Order Do the Sound Waves Go (In Terms of Ear Parts)?

28:28

How is Sound Measured?

29:14

At What Point is Sound Potentially Dangerous?

29:22

Describe the Different Kinds of Hearing Loss -- Conduction and Nerve Deafness

29:36

The Other Senses

38m 51s

Intro

0:00

Smell

0:13

Olfaction: Sense of Smell -- A Chemo Sense

0:24

Receptors are Located in a Mucous Membrane in the Upper Nasal Cavity (as Many as 100x Kinds of Receptors May Exist)

0:39

Olfactory Nerve Fibers Respond to Gaseous Molecules -- Approx. 5 Million in Each Nasal Cavity

1:05

Nerve Fibers From the Olf. Bulb Connect to the Brain at the Amygdala, Then to Hippocampus (Connected to Emotions and Memory)

1:33

Pheromones: Airborne Chemical Signal

2:53

Lock and Key Theory: Odors are Related to Shapes of Chemicals and Molecules

3:21

Anosmia: Defective Sense of Smell for a Single Odor

4:14

Olfactory System

4:41

Picture of What the Olfactory System Looks Like

4:42

Olfactory System

5:26

Animals and Scent Marking, e.g. Cats and Dogs

5:29

Cats Have Special Glands in Their Faces --> Rubbing

6:01

Women Tend to be Able to Smell More Accurately Than Men at All Ages

8:14

Ability to Smell Peaks From About 30-50

8:26

Decline After 50

8:30

Think Old Ladies and Perfume

8:35

Smells Tend to be Very Evocative of Memories -- Even of Ones Long Past -- From Learned Associations

9:18

Malls and Stores -- Will Pump in Certain Smells to Lure You In

10:20

Gustation and Taste Buds

11:08

Taste-Receptor Cells on Tongue Absorb Chemicals From Food We Eat

11:20

Papillae are the Cells on the Tongue -- The More Packed Together The Papillae Are, the More Chemicals Are Absorbed, The More Intense the Taste

11:31

Sense of Taste

12:11

Taste Works With Smell to Work

14:11

As We Age, Sense Gets Weaker

14:15

Taste and Survival Functions

14:31

Sweet -- A Source of Energy

14:35

Salty -- We Need Sodium for Our Basic Physiology

14:54

Sour -- Potentially Toxic Acid

15:06

Bitter -- Potential Poison

15:14

Umami -- Proteins for Growth and Tissue Repair

15:30

Dr. Linda Bartushock -- Research on Super-Tasters

15:45

The Tongue

17:08

Diagram of Tongue and Its Types of Papillae

17:09

Sensory Interaction

17:28

If You Close Your Eyes and Close Your Nose, Have Someone You Trust Feed You Various Foods

17:36

McGurk Effect

18:42

Somethetic Senses

19:31

Skin Senses (Touch): Light Touch, Pressure, Pain, Cold, Warmth

19:34

The Skin

19:41

Diagram of Layers of the Parts of the Skin

19:43

Vestibular System

20:47

Vestibular: Balance, Gravity, and Acceleration of the Head

20:52

Kinesthetic: Detect Body Position and Movement (Where is the Body in Space -- Gymnasts, Divers, Dancers, etc.) Procioreceptors

21:01

Otolith Organs: Sensitive to Movement, Acceleration, and Gravity

21:47

Semicircular Canals: Fluid-Filled Tubes in Ears That are Sensory Organs for Balance

22:10

Crista: Float That Detects Movement in Semicircular Canals

23:10

Ampulla: A Wider Part of the Canal

23:15

Vestibular System and Motion Sickness

23:25

Motion Sickness is Directly Related to Vestibular System

23:32

Sensory Conflict Theory: Motion Sickness Results From a Mismatch Between Information From Vision, Vestibular System, and Kinesthesis

23:36

Medications, Relaxation, and Lying Down Might Help

24:17

Pain

24:28

Visceral Pain: Pain Originating in Internal Organs

24:38

Referred Pain: Pain Felt on Surface of Body, Away from Origin Point

24:50

Somatic Pain: Sharp, Bright, Fast; Comes From Skin, Joints, Muscles, Tendons

24:55

Phantom Limb: Missing Limb Feels Like It is Present, Like Always Before Amputation or Accident (V.S. Ramachandran's Work Phantoms in the Brain)

25:14

Types of Pain

26:51

Warning System: Pain Carried by Large Nerve Fibers; Sharp, Bright, Fast Pain That Tells You Body Damage May Be Occurring (e.g. Knife Cut)

26:57

Reminding System: Small Nerve Fibers: Slower, Nagging, Aching, Widespread; Gets Worse if Stimulus is Repeated; Reminds System That Body has Been Injured

27:29

Gate-Control Theory of Pain

28:16

Sensory (Afferent) Receptors That Respond to Damaging Tissue (or Other Noxious Stimuli) Are Pain Receptors or Nociceptors

28:21

The More the Neurons Fire, The More Intense the Pain

28:38

Theory That Pain Messages From Different Nerve Fibers Pass Through the Same Neural Gate in the Spinal Cord

28:42

If Gate is Closed by One Pain Message, Other Messages May Not be Able to Pass Through

28:50

Substance P is a Neuropeptide (regulatory) Neurotransmitter -- Along With Other NTs Can Increase Neural Inflammation

29:38

Adaptation, Attention, and Sensory Gating

30:22

Sensory Adaptation: When Sensory Receptors Respond Less to Unchanging Stimuli

30:28

Perceptual Adaptation (Sensory Habituation): One's Perceptions of Senses Depends Upon How Focused We Are on Them

32:03

Adaptation, Attention, and Sensory Gating

32:44

Selective Attention: Voluntarily Focusing on a Specific Sensory Input

32:46

Sensory Gating: Facilitating or Blocking Sensory Messages in the Spinal Cord

34:17

Controlling Pain

34:32

Fear, or High Levels of Anxiety, Almost Always Increase Pain

34:35

If You Can Regulate a Painful Stimulus, You Have Control Over It

34:46

Distraction Can Also Significantly Reduce Pain

35:07

The Interpretation You Give A Stimulus Also Affects Pain

35:22

Beta-endorphins -- Natural Pain Chemical Similar to Morphine (Endogenous Opioid Peptides)

35:55

e.g. Runner's High

36:34

Review

37:33

How Do We Taste and Smell? What Parts of the Head and Brain are Involved?

37:36

What Does the Term Chemoreceptors Mean?

37:53

What are the Senses That We Have? Go Beyond the Main Five

38:00

Describe Different Kinds of Pain

38:26

What is Sensory Adaptation? Give at Least Two Examples

38:30

Perception, Part 1

23m 59s

Intro

0:00

Objectives

0:57

Describe General Principles of Organizing and Integrating Sensation to Promote Stable Awareness of the External World (e.g., Gestalt Principles, Depth Perception).

1:01

Discuss How Experience and Culture Can Influence Perceptual Processes (e.g., Perceptual Set, Context Effects).

1:15

Gestalt

1:25

Cognitive Viewpoint

1:35

German Word Meaning Pattern or Whole

1:37

Gestalt Psychologists Emphasized Our Tendency to Integrate Pieces of Information Into Meaningful Wholes

1:53

Form Perception: Figure and Ground

4:54

Two Pictures: Two Profiles or One Vase?

5:15

Form Perception: Figure and Ground

6:39

Two Pictures: Profile of Old Woman or Young Girl With Head Turned Away?

6:43

Form Perception

8:18

Grouping (Proximity)

8:32

Diagram: Six Rows or Three Sets of Two Columns?

8:37

Form Perception

9:25

Grouping (Similarity)

9:27

Form Perception

9:54

Grouping (Continuity)

10:00

Form Perception

10:37

Grouping (Connectedness)

10:42

Form Perception

11:09

Grouping (Closure)

11:12

Depth Perception

12:36

The Ability to See Objects in Three Dimensions Although The Images That Strike the Retina are Two Dimensional; Allows Us To Judge Distance

12:58

How and When Do We Perceive That?

13:10

Visual Cliff

13:13

A Demonstration That Shows Babies of a Certain Age Do Not Possess Depth Perception

13:26

Ability Develops With Age and Needs of Species

14:39

Developed by Gibson and Walk

14:56

Depth Perception

15:10

Binocular Cues

15:14

Depth Perception: Monocular Cues

17:32

Relative Height

17:52

Relative Size

17:53

Interposition

17:54

Linear Perspective

15:55

Relative Motion

15:56

Light and Shadow

15:57

Depth Perception: Monocular Cues

17:59

Relative Height

18:03

Depth Perception: Monocular Cues

18:38

Relative Size -- In Two-Dimensional Drawings or Paintings You Assume Smaller Things Are Further Away Since They Are Likely Similar Size

18:41

Depth Perception: Monocular Cues

19:47

Interposition -- If One Object Blocks Our View of Another Object, We Assume That It Is Closer

20:01

Depth Perception: Monocular Cues

20:32

Linear Perspective -- When Parallel Lines Seem to Converge In the Distance, The More They Converge, the Greater the Distance

20:56

Depth Perception: Monocular Cues

21:24

Linear Perspective -- Example Two (Train Tracks)

21:27

Depth Perception: Monocular Cues

21:55

Relative Motion: As We Move, Objects That Are Actually Stable May Appear To Move -- e.g. While Riding in a Car, You May Fix Your Eyes on a House -- The Objects Beyond that Point May Appear to Move With You -- Objects in Front of That Object Appear to Move Backward

21:59

Increase Distance From the Fixation Point Increases Perceived Speed

22:37

Review

22:52

Describe at Least Three Gestalt Principles That Impact Our Perceptions

22:55

Describe at Least Three Monocular Cues That Allow People to See Depth

23:01

Describe The Primary Binocular Cue

23:07

Perception, Part 2

28m 7s

Intro

0:00

Motion Perception

0:12

Stroboscopic Movement -- In the Case of Motion Pictures -- 24 fps -- a Series of Still Photos Creating The Illusion of Movement

0:18

Phi Phenomenon -- An Illusion of Movement Created When Two or More Adjacent Lights Blink On and Off in Quick Succession (Think a Movie Marquee or Lights on the Vegas Strip)

2:17

Perceptual Constancy

3:04

Perceiving Objects as Unchanging (Having Consistent Shapes, Sizes, Lightness, and Color) Even as Illumination and Retinal Images Change

3:11

Color Constancy

3:33

Perceiving Familiar Objects as Having Consistent Color, Even if Changing Illumination Alters the Wavelengths Reflected by the Object

3:46

(Picture of Balloon, Part of Which is in Direct Light and Appears to Be a Different Color)

3:57

Shape Constancy

4:35

Although Our Viewing Angle May Change or the Object May Rotate, We Still See the Object as Staying the Same Shape

4:39

e.g. When We See a Door -- Closed, Partially Open, Mostly Open -- From the Same Angle

4:50

The Ames Room and Forced Perspective

5:37

Diagram Showing Example of Ames Room and Forced Perspective

5:47

Illusions

7:47

Mega Site

8:07

Animated Necker Cube

8:23

Dogfeathers

9:20

Table Illusion

9:32

Spiral Illusion

10:01

Hollow Face Illusion

11:10

Impossible Figure: Blivet

12:11

Where Does the Middle Prong Start? (Top-Down Processing)

12:18

Top-Down Processing and Illusions

13:40

So Why Do We See These Illusions?

13:44

Most of the Examples of Illusions We've Seen are From Top-Down Processing

13:48

Examples -- Figure Ground (Vase-Face), Old Woman-Young Woman, Ambiguous Figures, Seeing Patterns Where There is Randomness

13:52

Seeing Impossible Figures -- Our Brain Sees 2-D But Interprets the Visual as 3-D

14:33

Vertical v Horizontal Stripes Making a Person Look Thinner or Thicker

15:22

The Moon Raching Through the Clouds as We Are Driving

16:25

Extrasensory Perception (ESP)

16:52

The Highly Controversial Claim That Perception Can Occur Apart From Sensory Input; Includes Telepathy, Clairvoyance, and Precognition

17:06

Parapsychology

17:49

Ultimately -- What is the Evidence?

18:02

James Randi (The Amazing Randi and JREF $1M)

18:18

Skeptical Inquirer (Michael Schermer)

19:54

Review

21:33

Take One Constancy and Illustrate How It Alters What We View Things That May Appear to be Something They Are Not

21:38

Connect the Ideas of Perception and Schema and How They Interact

22:03

Section 5: States of Consciousness

States of Consciousness

48m 7s

Intro

0:00

States of Consciousness (2-4%)

0:12

Sleep and Dreaming

0:32

Hypnosis

0:33

Psychoactive Drug Effects

0:35

Overview and Objectives

0:38

Understanding Consciousness and What it Encompasses is Critical to an Appreciation of What is Meant by a Given State of Consciousness

0:40

Objectives

0:58

Objectives, Continued

1:16

Describe Historic and Contemporary Uses of Hypnosis (e.g. Pain Control, Psychotherapy).

1:18

Explain Hypnotic Phenomena (e.g., Suggestibility, Dissociation).

1:23

Identify the Major Figures in Consciousness Research (e.g. William James, Sigmund Freud, Ernest Hilgard).

1:26

States of Consciousness

1:39

What is Consciousness?

1:41

States of Consciousness

2:50

Philosophical Discussion on the Nature of Consciousness

2:52

Levels of Consciousness

4:03

Conscious Level

4:07

All the Sensations, Perceptions, Memories and Feelings You Are Aware of at Any Instant

4:12

Nonconscious Level

4:42

Preconscious Level

5:26

Subconscious Level

5:45

Unconscious

6:22

Consciousness

6:36

Chart Describing the Various States of Consciousness, Which Can Occur Spontaneously, Be Physiologically Induced, or Psychologically Induced

6:38

Biological Rhythms -- Circadian Rhythms

8:20

Circadian Rhythms

8:36

Biological Rhythms -- Infradian Rhythms

10:35

Rhythm With a Period Longer Than a Circadian Rhythm With a Frequency Less Than One Cycle in 28 Days

10:40

Biological Rhythms -- Ultradian Rhythms

11:50

Recurrent Periods or Cycles Repeated Throughout a Circadian Rhythm Multiple Times Per Day

11:54

Sleep and Dreams

12:42

Characteristics of Sleep

12:53

Measuring Sleep Changes

15:29

Electroencephalograph (EEG): Brain-Wave Machine Amplifies and Records Electrical Activity in the Brain

15:31

Beta Waves: Small Fast Waves Associated With Alertness and Awakeness

15:45

Alpha Waves: Large, Slow Waves Associated With Relaxation and Falling Asleep

15:53

Stages of Sleep

16:24

Awake -- Alpha (Getting Relaxed)

16:26

Stage Zero

16:32

Stage One

26:33

Stages of Sleep

18:00

Stage Two

18:02

Stage Three

18:17

Stage Four

18:50

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep

19:09

Active Sleep: REM (Rapid Eye Movement)

19:16

Non-REM or NREM Sleep

21:56

Occurs During Stages One, Two, Three, and Four; No Rapid Eye Movement Occurs

22:00

90 Percent of Sleep Here is Dream-Free

22:05

Seems to Help Us Recover From Daily Fatigue

22:08

Sleep Stages

22:19

Graphic of Hypnogram, Which Measures a Sleeping Person's Brain Waves

22:21

REM

23:17

Good Band

23:21

Rapid Eye Movement

23:23

Occurs at Second Descent

23:24

Function is Somewhat Mysterious

23:27

REM Sleep Function vs. NREM Sleep Function

23:51

Why We Sleep

24:01

Sleep Theories

24:04

Sleep Over Time

24:25

Infants -- 16 Hours of Sleep Per Day, Half REM

24:27

Five to 13 Year-Olds -- 10 Hours Sleep Per Day, 2+ Hours REM

24:36

Twenty Year-Olds -- 7.5 Hours Sleep Per Day, 2 Hours REM

24:42

Fifty+ -- Typically Six Hours Per Day, Less Than 2 Hours REM

24:49

We Need Less Sleep as We Get Older

24:58

Sleep Issues

25:25

Variations in Sleeping Patterns

25:27

Cultural Influences

25:37

Sleep Debt -- Effects of Sleep Loss -- Need an Alarm to Wake Up; Struggle to Get Out of Bed, Feeling Tired and Irritable, Difficulty Concentrating and Remembering, Slow Thinking and Problem Solving, Sleepy When Not Moving (Lectures, TV, Riding in Cars), etc.

26:38

Sleepwalking (Somnambulism): Occurs in NREM Sleep During Stages 3 and 4.

28:00

Sleeptalking: Speaking While Asleep; Occurs in NREM Sleep

28:33

Shift Work and Sleep Deprivation

28:42

What Is Sleep Debt and What Symptoms Does it Have?

29:46

How Does Shift Work Disrupt People's Sleep Habits?

29:59

What Are Good Sleep Habits?

30:05

Restaurants and How to Get Rid of an Employee

30:23

Theories of Dreaming

31:48

Dreaming -- The Experience of Envisioned Images, Sounds, and Other Sensations During Sleep

31:58

Sigmund Freud/Psychodynamic Theory

32:13

Activation-Synthesis Theory

33:59

Problem Solving/Information Processing Theory

35:03

Physiological Function Theory

35:24

Sleep Disorders

36:09

Insomnia -- Temporary and Chronic

36:15

Narcolepsy -- May Include Cataplexy

36:29

Sleep Apnea

37:11

Parasomnias

39:22

Hypnosis (Framz Mesmer)

40:38

An Altered State of Consciousness In Which a Person is Highly Suggestible

41:00

What Hypnosis Can Do:

41:30

Theories of Hypnosis

43:11

Social Influence Theory (Role Theory)

43:14

Theories of Hypnosis

44:15

Divided Consciousness Theory (Dissociation Theory)

44:17

Review

46:28

Distinguish Among Circadian, Infradian and Ultradian Rhythms.

46:31

Give an Example of Each of the Above

46:38

Describe the Difference Between REM and NREM Sleep

46:41

What are Two Common Sleep Disorders and Their Likely Causes?

46:47

Compare the Different Theories of Dreaming -- Which Makes the Most Sense from a Scientific Point of View?

46:55

What are the Best and Worst Uses For Hypnosis?

47:08

Is Hypnosis Widely Accepted Among Psychologists?

47:29

States of Consciousness: Drugs

36m 21s

Intro

0:00

Objectives

0:11

Identify the Major Psychoactive Drug Categories (e.g. Depressants, Stimulants) and Classify Specific Drugs, Including Their Psychological and Physiological Effects

0:12

Discuss Drug Dependence, Addiction, Tolerance, and Withdrawal

0:25

Drugs

0:32

Psychoactive Drugs

0:33

Physical Dependence/Addiction

1:21

Psychological Dependence -- Drugs That Reduce Stress Become and Increasingly Important Part of a User's Life, Often as a Way to Relieve Negative Emotions (Sometimes Called Self-Medication)

3:09

Misconceptions About Addiction

3:54

Addiction -- Compulsive Drug Craving and Use, Despite Adverse Consequences

3:55

Myths

5:05

How Drugs Affect the Brain

6:58

Psychoactive Drugs Affect Synapses and Neurotransmitters in Three Ways

6:59

Tolerance: The Brain Will Produce Less of a Specific Neurotransmitter if it is Being Artificially Supplied by a Psychoactive Drug

7:31

Categories of Drugs

8:06

Depressants

8:10

Hallucinogens

8:20

Stimulants

8:31

Depressants

9:20

Alcohol, Barbiturates, Opiates

9:22

Drugs That Reduce Neural Activity and Slow Body Functioning

9:26

Includes Alcohol and Sedatives

9:39

All Depressants Can Cause Dependence, Tolerance, Withdrawal, and Psychological Addiction

12:19

Sedatives

13:10

Drugs That Reduce Anxiety or Induce Sleep

13:11

Also Called Tranquilizers or Hypnotics

13:20

Include Barbiturates (Drugs That Depress the Activity of the Central Nervous System, Reducing Anxiety but Impairing Memory and Judgment e.g. Phenobarbital or Seconal) and Benzodiazepines (Anti-Anxiety Drugs)

13:29

Opiates

14:39

Drugs That Depress Neural Activity, Temporarily Lessen Pain and Anxiety

14:40

Include: Opium, Morphine, Codeine, and Heroin

14:54

Strong Sedative and Pain-Relieving Drugs

15:31

Work By Preventing Pain Neurons From Firing or Releasing Pain-Signaling Neurotransmitters Into the Synapse, and Increasing Endorphin Levels

15:35

Over Time, the Brain Eventually Stops Producing Its Own Endorphins (Endogenous Opioid Peptides)

15:48

All Opiates Can Cause Dependence, Tolerance, Withdrawal, and Psychological Addiction

17:44

Stimulants

18:02

Drugs That Excite Neural Activity and Speed Up Body Functions

18:03

Include: Caffeine, Nicotine, Amphetamines, and Cocaine

18:18

Provides User With a Sense of Increased Energy, Mental Alertness and Forced Wakefulness

18:52

Blocks Neurological Receptor Sites That, If Activated, Sedate the Central Nervous System

19:08

All Stimulants Can Cause Dependence, Tolerance, Withdrawal, and Psychological Addiction

19:30

Methamphetamines = Super Stimulant

19:55

Stimulants -- Cocaine

20:50

Sniffed/Snorted, Injected or Smoked -- Gets Into Bloodstream Quickly

20:51

Euphoria Created Depletes Brain's Supply of Dopamine, Serotonin, and Norepinephrine

21:00

Crack is More Potent Version -- Briefer, More Intense High, a Craving for More

21:40

Cocaine is a Reuptake Inhibitor -- This Means it Blocks Neurotransmitters Already in the Synapse

21:52

Once Cocaine Level Drops, There is a Crash

22:33

Stimulants -- MDMA

22:42

Ecstasy, Molly -- Methylenedioxymethamphetamine

22:43

First Used in Northern California in Therapists' Offices

23:06

Releases Stored Serotonin & Blocks Reabsorption (Reuptake Inhibitor) -- Creates Longer Effect

24:00

3-4 Hour Impact

24:16

Lower Inhibitions, Increases Pleasant Feelings, and Greater Acceptance of Others Increased Light and Tactile Sensitivity

24:23

Dehydrating Effect (Made Worse by Dancing), Overheating, Increased Blood Pressure, and Even Death

25:37

Suppresses Immune System, Impairs Memory, and Disrupts Sleep (Part of Serotonin Connection)

26:18

Long-term Usage Reduces Serotonin's Creation and a Depressed Mood

26:34

Hallucinogens

27:00

LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide), PCP, Marijuana (THC)

27:01

Drugs That Distort Perceptions and Evoke Sensory Images in the Absence of Sensory Input

27:09

Include: LSD and Ecstasy (MDMA)

27:40

Sometimes Called Psychedelics

27:53

LSD Effects Vary From Person to Person

27:56

Many Have a Near Death Type of Experience -- Related to Oxygen Deprivation

28:00

Can Cause Physiological Dependence/Tolerance in Some People, But Not Everyone. Can Cause Psychological Dependence

28:07

Marijuana

29:41

Leaves, Stems, Resin, and Flowers From the Hemp Plant That, When Smoked, Lower Inhibitions and Produce Feelings of Relaxation and Mild Euphoria

29:42

THC (Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol) is the Active Ingredient

30:10

Disrupts Memory; Lung Damage From Smoke

30:17

Can Cause Physiological Dependence/Tolerance in Some People, But Not Everyone. Can Cause Psychological Dependence

30:31

Why Do People Use Drugs?

31:36

Biological Influences

31:37

Psychological Influences

32:22

Socio-Cultural Influences

33:31

Review

34:35

What Are the Major Categories of Psychoactive Drugs?

34:36

What Are the Effects of the General Categories of Drugs?

34:47

If One Looks for Energy, One Will Likely Take…

34:55

If One Looks to Calm Down…

35:06

If One Wants to Alter Their Perceptions…

35:12

Which Drug is a Mood Enhancer as Well as a CNS Depressant?

35:21

Which One is Similar to Endogenous Opioid Peptides?

35:31

Distinguish Between Addiction and Dependence

35:51

Section 6: Learning

Learning: Intro & Classical Conditioning

33m 26s

Intro

0:00

Learning (7-9%)

0:19

Classical Conditioning

0:38

Operant Conditioning

0:40

Cognitive Processes

0:42

Biological Factors

0:44

Social Learning

0:46

This Section of the Course Introduces Students to the Differences Between Learned and Unlearned Behavior. The Primary Focus is Exploration of Different Kinds of Learning, Including Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, and Observational Learning. The Biological Bases of Behavior Illustrate Predispositions for Learning.

2:17

Objectives

1:15

Distinguish General Differences Between Principles of Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, and Observational Learning (e.g. Contingencies).

1:24

Describe Basic Classical Conditioning Phenomena, Such as Acquisition, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Generalization, Discrimination, and Higher Order Learning.

1:28

Predict the Effects of Operant Conditioning (e.g. Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement, Punishment, Schedules of Reinforcement).

2:29

Predict How Practice, Schedules of Reinforcement, and Motivation Will Influence Quality of Learning.

2:38

Objectives, Continued

2:45

Describe the Essential Characteristics of Insight Learning, Latent Learning, and Social Learning

2:48

Apply Learning Principles to Explain Emotional Learning, Taste Aversion, Superstitious Behavior, and Learned Helplessness

2:53

Suggest How Behavior Modification, Biofeedback, Coping Strategies, and Self-Control Can Be Used to Address Behavioral Problems

3:06

Identify Key Contributors in the Psychology of Learning (e.g. Albert Bandura, John Garcia, Ivan Pavlov, Robert Rescale, B.F. Skinner, Edward Thorndike, Edward Dolman, John B. Watson)

3:20

Learning = Conditioning

3:43

Relatively Permanent Change in Behavior

4:02

As a Result of Experience

4:07

Does NOT Include Instincts, Reflexes, and Maturation

4:11

In This Unit, We Will Examine Learning By Association by Consequence and By Observation

4:36

Lots of Terms and Relationships to Each Other

4:41

Learning is Inferred From a Change in Behavior/Performance

4:59

Learning Results in an Inferred Change in Memory

5:09

Learning

5:22

This Means That Behavior Changes That are Temporary or Due to Things Like Drugs, Alcohol, etc. are NOT Learned

5:29

Classical Conditioning

5:46

One Type of Learning

6:19

Learning That Takes Place When an Originally Neutral Stimulus Comes to Produce a Conditioned Response Because of its Association With an Unconditioned Stimulus.

6:23

History: Discovered by Russian Psychologist, Ivan Pavlov.

7:56

Studied Dogs and Salivation

8:01

Pavlov and Contiguity

8:34

Temporal Association Between Two Events That Occur Closely Together in Time.

8:58

The More Closely in Time Two Events Occurred, the More Likely They Were to Become Associated; as Time Passes, Association Becomes Less Likely

9:28

Terms

10:22

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS or US) -- Any Stimulus That Creates an Autonomic/Automatic/Reflexive Response in an Organism

10:27

Unconditioned Response (UCR or UR) -- Response That Occurs Due to Autonomic or Reflective Stimulus

10:52

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) -- Anything That Can Be Perceived

11:10

Conditioned Response (CR) -- Anything That Can Be a UCR/UR Can Become a CR. For AP Psych, the UR is ALWAYS the Same as the CR

11:26

Diagram of Classical Conditioning

11:56

Unlearned S-R (Relationship) + (Association Formed/Pairing Made) --> Learned S-R

12:05

Pavlov and the Dogs

13:28

Same Diagram Using Examples from Pavlov's Research -- Food --> Salivation + Bell rung with food eventually becomes Bell Rung --> Salivation

13:35

Watson, Ramer, and Little Albert

16:20

Baby Albert -- 8 Months Old

16:38

Use of Metal Bar on Metal Bar

17:16

Paired Loud Noise With Rat, Rabbit, and More

17:36

Questions:

18:26

Watson and Little Albert

20:24

Unlearned S-R (Relationship) + (Association Formed/Pairing Made)

20:33

Loud Sound --> Fear then Rat+ Loud Sound eventually becomes Rat --> Fear

20:38

Stimulus Generalization

21:50

Little Albert Generalized His Fear of Rats Into Fear of Anything With White Fur, Including a Santa Claus Mask, a Rabbit, etc.,

22:45

Restaurants, The Flu, and Nausea

23:23

Flu (UCS) --> Nausea/Vomiting (UCR) then Jack in the Box + With Flu Eventually Becomes Jack in the Box --> Nausea

23:40

Food, Blood Sugar, Hunger, and Time

24:52

Needing Food/Having Low Blood Sugar (UCS) --> Hunger (UCR) then Time on Clock or In Class Right Before Lunch --> Associate Class With Hunger Eventually Becomes Time on Clock --> Hunger

25:05

Classic Puff of Air and Tone Example

27:46

Puff of Air (UCS) --> Blink (UCR) then Tone + Puff of Air Eventually Becomes Tone --> Blink

27:57

Trauma (Bomb), Context, and Fear

29:11

Bomb Explosion (UCS) --> Fear (UCR) then Art Museum + Bomb Explosion Eventually Becomes Art Museum --> Fear

31:19

Review

32:23

What is Learning? How is it Different From Taking a Psychoactive Substance?

32:26

Describe the Relationship Among the US, the UR, the CS and the CR

32:41

What Can Be a Conditioned Stimulus?

32:50

What Can Be an Unconditioned Stimulus?

32:58

Come Up With Your Own Examples of Classical Conditioning in Your Life -- Label the Parts

33:03

Classical Conditioning, Part II

21m 57s

Intro

0:00

Some More Examples

0:08

Romance, Kissing, Arousal, and Onions

0:20

Kissing(UCS) --> Arousal (UCR) then Kissing + Onions (CS) --> Eventually Becomes Onions --> Arousal

0:33

Beer Ads Example

1:42

Beer Ads Often Feature Attractive Young Women Wearing Bikinis. The Goal is to Get Men to Buy the Beer. What are the Parts of the CC Diagram With This Example?

1:45

Beer Ads

2:02

Attractive Women (UCS) --> Arousal (UCR) then Attractive Women + Beer (CS) --> Eventually Becomes Beer --> Arousal

2:08

Crime Example

2:52

When a Professor Was in College, He Was Robbed at Gun Point by a Young Man Who Gave Him the Choice (Your Money or Your Life) It was an Unexpected and Frightening Experience

2:55

This Event Occurred At Just About Dusk and for a Long Time Thereafter, He Often Experienced Moments of Dread in the Late Afternoons Particularly When He Was Just Walking Around the City

3:05

Even Though He Was Quite Safe, The Lengthening Shadows of the Day Were So Strongly Associated With the Dear He Experienced in the Robbery, That He Could Not But Help Feel the Emotion All Over

3:16

Label the Crime Experience

4:15

Threat (UCS) --> Fear (UCR) then Dusk + Robbery Became Dusk (CS) --> Fear (CR)

4:17

Alcoholism

4:56

Another Way to Treat Alcoholics is to Have Them Take a Drug Called Antabuse (Disulfiram). If They Ingest Any Alcohol at All, They Will Have Serious Vomiting Issues. The Desire is to Pair the Vomiting With the Alcoholic Drink.

4:58

Can You Label the Diagram?

5:19

Antabuse Example

6:19

Antabuse (UCS) --> Vomiting (UCR) then Alcohol + Antabuse (CS) Eventually Becomes Alcohol --> Vomiting (CR) (But WITHOUT Use of Antabuse)

6:22

Photos

7:12

Anna Learns to Blink When She Sees Her Father Hold The Camera to His Eye

7:31

Anna With the Camera and Flash

9:55

Flash (UCS) --> Blink (UCR) then Flash + Camera Eventually Becomes Camera (CS) --> Blink (CR)

10:03

Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

10:21

Stimulus Generalization

10:24

Applies Learning to Similar Things to What Was Associated

10:27

Stimulus Discrimination

10:58

Does NOT Apply Learning to Similar Things To What Was Associated -- Responds Only to the Original Association

11:00

Glaucoma Test

11:36

Opticians and the Puff Machines -- How My Chin Made Me Cry

11:58

Air Puff (UCS) --> Eyes Watering (UCR) then Air Puff + Chin Cup Eventually Becomes Chin Cup --> Eyes Watering

13:02

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

13:33

Extinction

13:37

A Procedure That Leads to the Gradual Weakening And Eventual Disappearance of the CR.

13:40

Involves Repeatedly Presenting the CS Without Pairing it With the UCS.

13:50

Spontaneous Recovery

15:09

Occurs When a Previously Extinguished CR Reappears After a Period of No Training

15:12

Will Often Result From Non-Recognized Factors Not Previously Identified

15:24

The (John) Garcia Effect

15:51

This is the Conditioned Taste Aversion That is Rapidly Achieved by a Single Pairing of an Illness Such as Nausea With Eating a Specific Food

16:36

Originally Discovered While Working With Rats and Studying Radiation Effects -- Initial Exposure to Food Followed by Toxic Reaction (Even if Several Hours Later) Made Rats Averse to Food

17:18

Conditioned Animals to Avoid Foods Paired With a Previously Aversive Taste

17:35

Conditioning Applied to Tastes But Not to Sights and Sounds

17:44

Process Not Traditional CS --> UCS --> CR/UCR Process Since CS Occurred Long Afterward, Not Immediately

17:53

Taste Aversion in Chemotherapy Patients is Very Common

18:07

Higher Order (Second Order) Conditioning

18:40

Starts Off With Traditional Unlearned Stimulus-Response Relationship, With First Association Pairing Made But Then a Second Association is Introduced

18:47

Ex: Training Involving a Tone Then Adding Light as Second Association

19:02

Review

20:15

Describe the Relationship Among the US, the UR, the CS and the CR

20:18

What Can Be a Conditioned Stimulus?

20:30

What Can Be an Unconditioned Response?

20:50

What Can Be an Unconditioned Stimulus?

21:08

Come Up With Your Own Examples of Classical Conditioning in Your Life -- Label the Parts

21:18

Operant Conditioning, Part I

31m 1s

Intro

0:00

Operant Conditioning

0:11

Predict the Effects of Operant Conditioning (e.g. Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement, Punishment, Schedules of Reinforcement).

0:16

Predict How Practice, Schedules of Reinforcement, And Motivation Will Influence Quality of Learning.

0:28

Thorndike and the Law of Effect

1:07

Responses That Produce a Satisfying Effect in a Particular Situation Become More Likely to Occur Again in That Situation, and Responses That Produce a Discomforting Effect Become Less Likely to Occur Again In That Situation

1:20

In Other Words, When Better Things Happen After We Do Something, We Are More Likely to Do It Again

1:36

Connectionism -- Organisms Connect Behaviors to What Occurs After -- Early Form of Behaviorism

1:46

Thorndike is Father of Modern Educational Psychology

1:56

Thorndike's Puzzle Box

2:35

Picture of Puzzle Box and Graph Illustrating The More Trials a Subject Went Through, The Less Time it Took to Solve Puzzle.

2:40

Cats, Puzzle Box, and Law of Effect

3:27

First Trial in Puzzle Box -- More Likely to Scratch at Bars, Yeowl, Dig at Door, etc. Before Pushing Release Lever

3:29

After Many Trials in Box, Cat is More Likely to Push Release Lever First to Escape Box.

3:56

B.F. Skinner

4:17

Founder of Modern Behavioral Perspective

4:20

Operant Conditioning -- An Organism Operates in Its Environment, Exhibiting Behaviors That are Inborn or Learned

4:32

Environmental Determinism

5:17

Invented the Operant Conditioning Box -- Sometimes Called a Skinner Box -- He Hated That Term

5:28

Trained Rats, Birds, and People

5:40

So Much Research in This Area -- One of the Most Scientifically Validated Theories/Approaches

5:55

Operant Conditioning

6:09

A Type of Learning in Which Behavior is Strengthened if Followed by a Reinforcer or Diminished if Followed by a Punisher

6:11

What We Are Trying to do is Learn How We Can Modify an Organism's Behavior Using the Most Effective Means Possible. We Use Reinforcement and Punishment. Each Organism Interprets This Differently.

6:27

Key Distinction in Terms -- in OC, The Organism EMITS Behavior. In CC, The Behavior is ELICITED (Drawn Out of the Organism)

7:02

Skinner's Experiments

7:28

Operant Conditioning Chamber (aka Skinner Box)

7:30

Diagram of Box and Its Parts, and Rat Inside Box

7:38

Terms and Ideas

11:05

These Are Labels That Are Put on After Behavior Is Seen

11:11

Kinds of Reinforcement & Punishment

12:53

Positive and Negative Reinforcement/ Positive and Negative Punishment

13:01

Positive Reinforcement

15:46

Positive Reinforcement -- Adding a Pleasant Stimulus to Increase a Behavior

15:47

e.g. Getting a Hug

15:57

e.g. Receiving a Paycheck

16:38

e.g. Getting a Great Job! From Coach or Teacher

16:48

There was this Goose -- Tale of Reinforcement

17:16

Negative Reinforcement

20:05

Negative Reinforcement -- Removing an Unpleasant/Aversive Stimulus to Increase a Behavior

20:08

e.g. The Buzzing Stops When You Fasten Seat Belt

20:16

e.g. You Put on Sunscreen Before Getting in the Sun at the Beach

21:22

Punishment

21:38

Positive Punishment -- Adding an Unpleasant/Aversive Stimulus to Reduce a Behavior

21:43

Punishment

23:26

Negative Punishment -- Removing a Pleasant Stimulus to Reduce a Behavior

23:30

All Consequences

25:11

Most Effective When Immediately Follows a Response AND is Applied Consistently

25:17

Review

28:19

What is Operant Conditioning and How Does It Differ From Classical Conditioning?

28:22

Describe the Law of Effect

28:35

Describe the Difference Between Reinforcement and Punishment

28:42

How is Positive Punishment Related to Negative Reinforcement?

28:49

Examine Your Own Life and Find an Example of Operant Conditioning in Which You Were Conditioned and Another Example in Which You Conditioned Someone Else

30:01

Operant Conditioning, Part II

31m 22s

Intro

0:00

Kinds of Reinforcement & Punishment

0:11

Chart Looking at Positive/Negative (Adding or Removing Stimulus And Reinforcement vs. Punishment

0:16

Escape Conditioning

1:12

Escape Conditioning Occurs When the Animal Learns to Perform an Operant to Terminate an Ongoing, Aversive Stimulus. It is a Get Me Out of Here or Shut This Off Reaction, Aimed at Escape From Pain or Annoyance. The Behavior That Produces Escape is Negatively Reinforced (Reinforced by the Elimination of the Unpleasant Stimulus).

1:15

Avoidance Conditioning

2:52

When an Organism Learns to Avoid Unpleasant or Punishing Stimuli by Learning the Appropriate Anticipatory Response to Protect it From Further Stimuli (Learns a Cue Before the Stimuli -- Follows Escape Conditioning)

2:56

Occurs Quickly and is Very Durable.

3:18

e.g. If You Sounded a Tone Before You Electrified the Platform. After One or Two Trials, the Rat Would Respond to the Tone by Jumping Into the Water. It Would Not Wait for the Shock.

3:53

This is a Form of Stimulus Control, Because it Puts Behavior Under Control of a Stimulus, in This Case, the Warning Tone.

4:08

Avoidance Behaviors are Incredibly Persistent. This is True When There is No Longer Anything to Avoid.

4:15

Schedules of Reinforcement

5:17

Continuous Reinforcement: Every Instance of a Behavior Occurs is Reinforced

5:33

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement -- Reinforcing a Response Only Part of the Time; Results in Slower Acquisition of a Response But Much Greater Resistance to Extinction Than Does Continuous Reinforcement

5:44

Ratio Schedules: Reinforcement is Based on the Number of Behaviors Required

6:34

Interval Schedules: Reinforcement is Based on the Passage of Time

6:39

Variable -- Uncertain Number of Times/Behaviors

6:44

Fixed -- Certain Number of Times/Behaviors

6:49

Immediate v. Delayed Reinforcers -- Like Pavlov and Contiguity, the Longer the Delay, the Less, the Connection.

6:54

Schedules of Reinforcement

7:13

Fixed Ratio and Variable Ratio vs. Fixed Interval and Variable Interval

7:17

Fixed Interval Examples

11:11

Doing My Job and Receiving my Paycheck Monthly (Last Day of the Month)

11:18

The Daily Mail -- I Receive My Mail at Roughly the Same Time Each Day

11:35

A Course Where There are Exams Every Three Weeks (Studying Right Before the Exam and Then Stopping Until the Next Round)

11:49

Variable Interval Examples

12:22

Unpredictable -- Reinforcement Occurs After a Random Amount of Time

12:26

Checking Your Phone For Text Messages -- You Do Not Know When You Will be Rewarded With a Message, But Continue to Check Until You Do.

12:34

A Parent Attending to the Cries of a Child. Parents Will Not Typically Attend to the Child Each Time It Cries, But Will Leave He or She to Fuss For a Period Before Attending

13:06

Fixed Ratio Examples

13:43

Giving a Child Candy EVERY Time She Picks Up Her Toys

13:46

Getting Paid After Each Car Gets Sold

13:59

Student May Be Given a Prize After Reading Ten Books

14:24

Factory Workers Getting Paid by the Piece (e.g. $10 for Each Widget Made)

14:35

Getting a Free Sandwich Upon Purchase of 10 Sandwiches

14:54

Variable Ratio Examples

15:11

The Classic of Winning the Jackpot on the Slot Machine After Changing a Number of Times Playing It.

15:23

Playing Poker -- I Do Not Win Every Time, But Must Play in Order to Have a Chance

17:11

Buying Lottery Tickets and Winning Occasionally

17:22

Going Fly Fishing

18:03

Playing The Lottery

18:41

Shaping

19:38

Shaping is a Technique Using Positive Reinforcements in Order to Create a More Complex Behavior

19:43

Television Examples

23:45

The Office

23:52

The Big Bang Theory

25:23

Now That You Know These Ideas, You Will Begin to See Them Everywhere -- This is Called Selective Perception -- It's Due to a Recent Change in Your Schema

26:01

Operant and Classical Conditioning on TV

26:52

Cesar Milan -- Dogs

26:56

Jackson Galaxy -- Cats

26:58

Both are Animal Behaviorists

26:59

Watch One or Two Episodes Each -- They Modify the Owner's Behavior as Much as the Animal

27:06

Review

27:51

Which Schedule of Reinforcement is Most Effective in Training Someone/Thing to Do a Behavior?

27:54

Which is Most Difficult to Extinguish?

28:17

Examine Your Own Life and Find an Example of Operant Conditioning in Which You Were Conditioned and Another Example in Which You Conditioned Someone Else -- Now Connect Reinforcement Schedules -- Where Are Some of These in Your Life?

28:23

Cognitive Aspect of Learning

34m 1s

Intro

0:00

Objectives

0:12

Describe the Essential Characteristics of Insight Learning, Latent Learning, and Social Learning.

0:18

Apply Learning Principles to Explain Emotional Learning, Taste Aversion, Superstitious Behavior, and Learned Helplessness.

0:23

Suggest How Behavior Modification, Biofeedback, Coping Strategies, and Self-Control Can Be Used to Address Behavioral Problems.

0:31

Identify Key Contributors in the Psychology of Learning (e.g. Albert Bandura, John Garcia, Ivan Pavlov, Robert Rescorla, B.F. Skinner, Edward Thorndike, Edward Tolman, John B. Watson).

0:42

Observational Learning

0:52

Monkey See, Monkey Do

1:03

Children See, Children Do

1:05

Ever Watch a Child View a TY Show With Violent Characters and Then See His/Her Behavior Change?

1:41

Albert Bandura -- Bobo Doll Learning

3:02

Observational Learning

3:57

Model and Imitation

3:53

In Sociology, Anticipatory Socialization

5:35

Mirror Neurons -- Frontal Lobe Neurons That Fire When Performing Certain Actions or When Observing Another Doing So. The Brain's Mirroring of Another's Action May Enable Imitation and Empathy

7:05

Observational Learning

8:04

Prosocial Effects

8:07

Antisocial Effects

8:28

Bandura, Continued

9:55

Social Cognitive Theory -- Learn by Imitating Actions of Others, Vicarious Learning

9:58

Self-Efficacy Theory (Sense of Control)

10:32

Reciprocal Determinism -- The Individual And Environment Influence and Change Each Other

11:20

Pavlov's Ideas Extended

13:06

Robert Rescorla

13:10

Skinner's Ideas Extended

14:17

Cognition and Operant Conditioning

14:21

Latent Learning -- Learning That Becomes Apparent When There is an Incentive to Show It -- Can Seemingly Lay Dormant

14:25

Skinner's Ideas Extended

17:15

Biological

17:18

Applications of Skinner's Ideas

18:26

Operant Conditioning

18:30

Comparing Classical/Operant Conditioning

21:59

Differences in Their Basic Ideas, Responses, and Acquisition

22:04

Comparing Classical/Operant Conditioning

22:50

Differences in How Conditioning Becomes Extinct, and in Spontaneous Recovery

22:54

Comparing Classical/Operant Conditioning

23:52

Differences in Generalization and Discrimination

23:57

Additional Concepts in Learning

25:11

Habituation -- Gradual Process Where the Organism Decreases a Response to Stimulus That is Repeated Over Time

25:14

Learned Helplessness -- Martin Seligman, Puppies, and Humans -- Condition of a Human or Animal That Has Learned to Behave Helplessness, Failing to Respond Even Though There are Opportunities For It to Help Itself by Avoiding Unpleasant Circumstances or by Gaining Positive Rewards

26:00

Superstitious Behavior

29:47

Biofeedback

29:26

Review

32:43

What is a Model and What Is Imitation in Social Learning Theory?

32:45

What Is Reciprocal Determinism and How Can It Create Certain Outcomes for Individuals Who Isolate Themselves?

32:57

Describe the Bobo Doll Study and Why it was so Important for Understanding Social Learning Theory

33:08

Compare and Contrast CC and OC in Terms of Acquisition, Reinforcement, Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction

33:15

Section 7: Cognition

Cognition Memory

51m 3s

Intro

0:00

Cognition (8-10%)

0:08

Memory

0:21

Language

0:22

Thinking

0:23

Problem Solving and Creativity

0:24

In This Unit, You Will Learn How Humans Convert Sensory Input Into Kinds of Information. We Examine How Human Learn, Remember, and Retrieve Information. This part of the Course Also Addresses Problem Solving, Language, and Creativity.

0:27

Objectives

0:50

Compare and Contrast Various Cognitive Processes

0:54

Describe and Differentiate Psychological and Physiological Systems of Memory (e.g., Short-Term Memory, Procedural Memory)

1:14

Outline the Principles That Underlie Effective Encoding, Storage, and Construction of Memories

1:20

Describe Strategies For Memory Improvement

1:25

Objectives, Continued

1:41

Synthesize How Biological, Cognitive, and Cultural Factors Converge to Facilitate Acquisition, Development, and Use of Language

1:43

Identify Problem-Solving Strategies as Well as Factors That Influence Their Effectiveness

1:55

List the Characteristics of Creative Thought and Creative Thinkers

1:57

Identify Key Contributors in Cognitive Psychology (e.g. Noam Chomsky, Hermann Ebbinghaus, Wolfgang Kohler, Elizabeth Loftus, George A. Miller).

2:00

Memory Demo #1

2:13

Memorizing a 20 Digit Number

2:18

Without Writing it Down

2:47

Listen Carefully

3:03

Debriefing and Explanation

3:19

Memory Demo #2

3:54

Recalling the Presidents of the US

3:59

Debriefing and Explanation

4:19

Memory Demo #3

6:24

Make a List of the US States in Any Order

6:27

Debriefing and Explanation

6:55

Memory: Some Key Terms

8:57

Memory: Active System That Stores, Organizes, Alters, and Recovers (Retrieves) Information

9:00

Encoding: Converting Information Into a Useable Form

9:10

Rehearsal: The Conscious Repetition of Information, Either to Maintain it in Consciousness or to Encode It For Storage

9:16

Storage: Holding This Information in Memory

9:25

Retrieval: Taking Memories Out of Storage

9:29

Schema: The Mental Map or Filter That One Uses to Connect New Information to Old, Established Information -- Can Make Learning New Things Much Easier

9:33

Sensory Memory

9:47

Storing an Exact Copy of Incoming Information For a Few Seconds (Either What is Seen or Heard); The First Stage of Memory

9:52

Icon: A Fleeting Mental Image or Visual Representation

10:01

Echo: After a Sound is Heard, a Brief Continuation of the Activity in the Auditory System

10:25

Short-Term Memory (STM)

10:51

Storing Small Amounts of Information Briefly

10:56

Very Sensitive to Interruption or Interference

12:25

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

13:41

Storing Information Relatively Permanently

13:47

Stored on Basis of Meaning and Importance

13:51

Atkinson-Shiffrin Memory Model -- Modified

14:27

Diagram

14:31

Processing

16:24

Parallel: The Processing of Many Aspects of a Problem Simultaneously; The Brain's Natural Mode of Information Processing for Many Functions. Contrasts With the Step-by-Step (Serial) Processing of Most Computers and of Conscious Problem-Solving

16:30

Automatic -- Unconscious Encoding of Incidental Information, Such as Space, Time, and Frequency, and of Well-Learned Information, Such as Word Meanings

16:56

Effortful -- Encoding that Requires Attention and Conscious Effort

18:26

Short-Term Memory Concepts

19:47

Digit Span: Test of Attention and Short-Term Memory; String of Numbers is Recalled Forward or Backward

19:51

Magic Number 7 (Plus or Minus 2): STM is Limited to Holding Seven (Plus or Minus 2) Information Bits at Once

20:13

More STM Concepts

20:57

Recoding: Reorganizing or Modifying Information to Assist Storage in STM

21:01

Maintenance Rehearsal

22:25

Repeating Information Silently to Prolong Its Presence in STM

22:28

Elaborative Rehearsal

24:34

Links New Information With Existing Memories and Knowledge in LTM

24:37

Long-Term Memory Concepts

26:37

Constructive Processing: Updating Long-Term Memories on Basis of Logic, Reasoning, or New Information

26:41

Pseudo-Memories: False Memories That a Person Believes are True or Accurate

26:55

Types of Long-Term Memories

28:00

Procedural (Skilled): Long-term Memories of Conditioned Responses and Learned Skills, e.g. Driving

28:05

Declarative (Fact): LTM Factual Information -- Also Called Explicit Memory

28:40

Types of Memory

30:06

Chart Showing Hierarchies of Memory

30:08

Measuring Memory

31:06

Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) State: Feeling That a Memory is Available But Not Quite Retrievable

31:10

Feeling of Knowing: Feeling That Allows People to Predict Beforehand Whether They'll Be Able to Remember Something

31:46

Serial Position Effect

32:02

Chart

32:23

Measuring Memory

33:16

Recognition Memory: Previously Learned Material is Correctly Identified

33:20

Distractors: False Items Included With Correct Item

34:12

False Positive: False Sense of Recognition

34:26

Recall: Direct Retrieval of Facts or Information

34:47

Measuring Memory Continued

35:46

Relearning: Learning Again Something That Was Previously Learned

35:50

Used to Measure Memory of Prior Learning

36:13

Savings Score: Amount of Time Saved When Relearning Information

36:48

Memory Features

37:01

Recalled Better With Use of Mnemonics

37:05

Spaced Practice Better Than Massed Practice

37:09

Measuring Memory -- Concluded

37:38

Explicit Memory: Past Experiences That Are Consciously Brought to Mind

37:40

Implicit Memory: A Memory Not Known to Exist; Memory That is Unconsciously Retrieved

37:46

Priming: When Cues Are Used to Activate Hidden Memories

39:07

Internal Images: Mental Pictures Used in Memory and Thinking

39:26

Eidetic Memory

39:56

Occurs When a Person (Usually a Child) Has Visual Images Clear Enough to be Scanned or Retained for at Least 30 Seconds

40:00

Usually Projected Onto a Plain Surface, Like a Blank Piece of Paper

40:09

Usually Disappears During Adolescence and is Rare by Adulthood

40:16

Sheldon From TBBT Claims to Have This

40:20

Forgetting

41:01

Ebbinghaus Research

41:10

Nonsense Syllables: Meaningless Three-Letter Words (Fej, Quf) That Test Learning and Forgetting

41:14

Encoding Failure: When a Memory Was Never Formed in the First Place

41:41

Memory Traces: Physical Changes in Nerve Cells or Brain Activity That Occur When Memories are Stored

42:04

Memory Decay: When Memory Traces Become Weaker; Fading to Weakening of Memories

42:45

Disuse: Theory That Memory Traces Weaken When Memories Are Not Used or Retrieved

42:58

More Forgetting Theories

43:16

Memory Cue: Any Stimulus Associated With a Memory; Usually Enhances Retrieval of a Memory

43:19

State Dependent/Mood Dependent

44:33

When Memory Retrieval is Influenced by Body State; If Your Body State is the Same at the Time of Learning AND The Time of Retrieval, Retrievals Will Be Improved

44:38

Interference

45:30

Tendency for New Memories to Impair Retrieval of Older Memories, and the Reverse

45:36

Retroactive Interference: Tendency for New Memories to Interfere With Retrieval of Old Memories

45:46

Proactive Interference: Prior Learning Inhibits (Interferes With) Recall of Later Learning

47:21

Two Ways

48:06

Review

49:17

How Do Psychologists Describe The Human Memory System?

49:20

What Information Do We Encode Automatically?

49:25

What Information Do We Encode Effortfully, and How Does the Distribution of Practice Influence Retention?

49:28

What Effortful Processing Methods Aid in Forming Memories?

49:42

What is Sensory Memory?

49:49

What are the Duration and Capacity of Short-Term and Long-Term Memory?

49:52

How Does the Brain Store Our Memories?

50:21

How Do We Get Information Out of Memory?

50:25

How Do External Contects and Internal Emotions Influence Memory Retrieval?

50:32

Why Do We Forget?

50:40

Memory, Part II

27m 44s

Intro

0:00

Transfer of Training

0:08

Positive Transfer: Mastery of One Task Aids Learning or Performing Another

0:12

Negative Transfer: Mastery of One Task Conflicts With Learning or Performing Another

0:20

e.g. Volleyball and Softball Training Helps One Another

0:26

Repression and Suppression

1:03

Repression: Unconsciously Pushing Painful, Embarrassing, or Threatening Memories Out of Awareness/Consciousness

1:09

Suppression: Consciously Putting Something Painful or Threatening Out of Mind Or Trying to Keep It From Entering Awareness

1:33

Flashbulb Memories

2:00

Memories Created During Times of Personal Tragedy, Accident, or Other Emotionally Significant Events

2:04

Includes Both Positive and Negative Events

3:19

Not Always Accurate

3:25

Great Confidence is Placed in Them Even Though They May Be Inaccurate

3:29

Memory Formation

3:40

Retrograde Amnesia: Forgetting Events That Occurred Before an Injury or Trauma

3:45

Anterograde Amnesia: Forgetting Events That Follow an Injury or Trauma (e.g. 50 First Dates or Memento)

3:54

Consolidation: Forming a Long-Term Memory

4:30

Electroconvulsive Shock (ECS)

4:47

Mild Electrical Shock Passed Through the Brain Produces a Convulsion, Destroys Any Memory That is Being Formed; One Way to Prevent Consolidation

4:52

Memory Structures

5:23

Hippocampus: Brain Structure Associated With Emotion and Transfer of Information Passing From Short-Term Memory Into Long-Term Memory

5:27

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): An Increase in a Synapse's Firing Potential After Brief, Rapid Stimulation. Believed to be a Neural Basis for Learning and Memory

8:29

Ways to Improve Memory

9:01

Practice, Practice, Practice

9:07

Remember the First Time You Played Rock Band or Some Other Video Game? Were You Immediately an Expert?

9:24

Priming: The Activation, Often Unconsciously, of Particular Associations in Memory

10:26

Recitation: Summarizing Aloud While You Are Learning

10:50

Meaningful -- Make the Ideas You Are Studying Meaningful -- When Possible, Make Connections to Ideas You Already Know

11:43

Organization: Organizing Difficult Items Into Chunks; a Type of Reordering

11:58

Ways to Improve Memory, Continued

13:40

Study Repeatedly: Use Distributed/Spaced Practice-Take Advantage of Down Time -- Little Bits to Review Material

13:45

Minimize Interference -- Do Not Study Similar Subjects Back to Back

14:01

Sleep -- Get Enough

14:32

Overlearning: Studying is Continued Beyond Bare Mastery

14:51

Knowledge of Results: Feedback Allowing You to Check Your Progress -- Test Yourself

15:13

More Ways to Improve Memory

15:51

Spaced Practice: Alternating Short Study Sessions With Brief Rest Periods

15:55

Massed Practice: Studying for Long Periods Without Rest Periods

16:01

Lack of Sleep Decreases Retention; Sleep Aids Consolidation

16:10

Hunger Decreases Retention

16:18

Cognitive Interview: Technique Used to Improve Memories of Witnesses

16:36

Mnemonics: Memory Tricks

17:26

Any Kind of Memory System of Aid

17:34

Using Mnemonics to Recall an Order

18:37

Form a Chain or a Story: Remember Lists in Order, Forming an Exaggerated Association Connecting Item One to Two and So On

18:38

Take a Mental Walk: Mentally Walk Along a Familiar Path, Placing Objects or Ideas Along The Path

18:52

Form Acronyms -- My Very Eager Mother Just Served Us Nine (Pizzas) -- The Planets

19:44

SOHCAHTOA -- Trigonometry

20:28

Eyewitness Memory

21:17

Elizabeth Loftus -- Lots of Research Into the Consolidation of Memory and How Memories Are Easily Changed -- Includes Planting False Memories, Misinformation and Incorrect Attribution

21:21

Misinformation Effect: By Incorporating Misleading Information or Asking Leading Questions, An Investigator Can Change One's Memory of an Event

21:48

Source Amnesia: Attributing to the Wrong Source an Event We Have Experienced, Heard About, Read About, or Imagined. (Also Called Source Misattribution.) Source Amnesia, Along With the Misinformation Effect, is at the Heart of Many False Memories

22:32

Elizabeth Loftus, Continued

23:10

False Memories -- In Court, Gave Evidence of the Malleability of Memory and Showed How the Idea of Repressed Memories Are Likely Just Ideas Implanted During Therapy Sessions, Not Recollections of Actual Events

23:11

The Lost in the Mall Technique With Children -- Gave Children the Idea That They Had Had an Experience of Being Lost. 25% Indicated That They Later Thought That This Was a Real Occurrence in Their Lives, They Had a Memory For it

23:45

Later Variations Showed the 1/3 of Subjects Could Be Convinced That They Had Traumatizing Events That Had Occurred to Them

24:21

Eyewitness Memory

24:40

The Book, Picking Cotton

24:50

Wrongfully Accused Man, Ronald Cotton -- Convicted of Rape by Eyewitness Testimony

24:58

Eventually Overturned When Real Rapist Was Arrested On Another Charge

25:51

Link to Book

24:55

Link to The Innocence Project

26:16

Review

26:38

How Do Misinformation, Imagination, and Source Amnesia Influence Our Memory Construction?

26:40

How Real Seeming Are False Memories?

26:49

What Is The Controversy Related to Claims of Repressed and Recovered Memories?

26:52

How Can an Understanding of Memory Contribute to More Effective Studying Techniques?

27:24

Cognition

31m 56s

Intro

0:00

Overview

0:07

Synthesize How Biological, Cognitive, and Cultural Factors Converge to Facilitate Acquisition, Development, and Use of Language.

0:10

Identify Problem-Solving Strategies as Well as Factors That Influence Their Effectiveness.

0:21

List the Characteristics of Creative Thought and Creative Thinkers

0:26

Cognition

0:30

Cognition: The Mental Activities Associated With Thinking, Knowing, Remembering, and Communicating

0:33

Ideas Behind Thinking

0:48

Solving Problems

2:42

Algorithms: a Methodical, Logical Rule or Procedure That Guarantees Solving a Particular Problem

2:49

Heuristics: Rules of Thumb or a Simple Thinking Strategy That Often Allows Us to Make Judgments and Solve Problems Efficiently

3:11

Insight: A Sudden and Often Novel Realization of the Solution to a Problem; It Contrasts With Strategy-Based Solutions

3:32

Friendship Algorithm

3:50

Sheldon (of BBT) made up a Friendship Algorithm, Which is Displayed Here

3:53

Problems in Problem Solving

5:33

Confirmation Bias: A Tendency to Search for Information That Supports Our Preconceptions and to Ignore or Distort Contradictory Evidence -- We Are Uncomfortable With Cognitive Dissonance

5:37

Fixation: The Inability to See a Problem From a Fresh Point of View -- This Relates to How We See/Define a Problem -- Can Lead to Others

6:58

AP Psychology Cognition

Section 7: Cognition: Lecture 3 | 31:56 min

Lecture Description

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Lecture Comments (2)

1 answer

Last reply by: Professor Charles Schallhorn
Mon Nov 10, 2014 2:01 PM

Post by Omar Arab on November 4, 2013

It a great lecture. could help me answering these questions?

What is the difference between reliability and validity of an intelligence test?
Savant syndrome lends support to which theory of intelligence?

Cognition

Cognition: the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Prototype: a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)
Algorithms: a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
Heuristics: “rules of thumb” or a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
Insight: a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Confirmation Bias: a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence—we are uncomfortable with cognitive dissonance
Fixation: the inability to see a problem from a fresh point of view—this relates to how we see/define a problem—can lead to others
Representative Heuristic: judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
Availability heuristic: estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
Overconfidence: the tendency to be more confident that correct – to over-estimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments
Belief Perseverance: clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they are formed has been discredited
Framing: the way an issue is posed or presented; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
Creativity is the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas in all fields
Characteristics of creativity include expertise, imaginative thinking skills, an adventurous personality, intrinsic motivation, and a creative environment
While convergent thinking limits creativity, divergent thinking increases the likelihood
Intuition is an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought—contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

Cognition

Lecture Slides are screen-captured images of important points in the lecture. Students can download and print out these lecture slide images to do practice problems as well as take notes while watching the lecture.

Intro

Overview

Cognition

Solving Problems

Friendship Algorithm

Sheldon (of BBT) made up a Friendship Algorithm, Which is Displayed Here

Problems in Problem Solving

More Problems: Representative Heuristic

Representative Heuristic: Judging the Likelihood of Things in Terms of How Well They Seem to Represent, or Match, Particular Prototypes; May Lead Us to Ignore Other Relevant Information.

More Problems: Representative Heuristic

e.g. A Person Might Judge a Young Person More Likely to Commit Suicide Because of a Prototype of the Depressed Adolescent -- The Reality is That Suicide Rates are Not Higher in Younger Populations

More Problems: Availability Heuristic

More Impediments to Problem Solving

In Short

Creativity

Creativity

Intuition

An Effortless Immediate, Automatic Feeling or Thought, As Contrasted With Explicit, Conscious Reasoning

Review

Intro 0:00
Overview 0:07

Synthesize How Biological, Cognitive, and Cultural Factors Converge to Facilitate Acquisition, Development, and Use of Language.
Identify Problem-Solving Strategies as Well as Factors That Influence Their Effectiveness.
List the Characteristics of Creative Thought and Creative Thinkers

Cognition 0:30

Cognition: The Mental Activities Associated With Thinking, Knowing, Remembering, and Communicating
Ideas Behind Thinking

Solving Problems 2:42

Algorithms: a Methodical, Logical Rule or Procedure That Guarantees Solving a Particular Problem
Heuristics: Rules of Thumb or a Simple Thinking Strategy That Often Allows Us to Make Judgments and Solve Problems Efficiently
Insight: A Sudden and Often Novel Realization of the Solution to a Problem; It Contrasts With Strategy-Based Solutions

Friendship Algorithm 3:50

Sheldon (of BBT) made up a Friendship Algorithm, Which is Displayed Here

Problems in Problem Solving 5:33

Confirmation Bias: A Tendency to Search for Information That Supports Our Preconceptions and to Ignore or Distort Contradictory Evidence -- We Are Uncomfortable With Cognitive Dissonance
Fixation: The Inability to See a Problem From a Fresh Point of View -- This Relates to How We See/Define a Problem -- Can Lead to Others

More Problems: Representative Heuristic 8:55

Representative Heuristic: Judging the Likelihood of Things in Terms of How Well They Seem to Represent, or Match, Particular Prototypes; May Lead Us to Ignore Other Relevant Information.

More Problems: Representative Heuristic 10:59

e.g. A Person Might Judge a Young Person More Likely to Commit Suicide Because of a Prototype of the Depressed Adolescent -- The Reality is That Suicide Rates are Not Higher in Younger Populations

More Problems: Availability Heuristic 12:02

Availability Heuristic: Estimating the Likelihood of Events Based on Their Availability in Memory; If Instances Come Readily to Mind (Perhaps Because of Their Vividness), We Presume Such Events are Common
We May Fear Flying Because of 9/11 or Some Other Notable Event -- This Influences Our Thinking

More Impediments to Problem Solving 14:06

Overconfidence: The Tendency to Be More Confident Than Correct -- To Over-Estimate the Accuracy of Our Beliefs and Judgments
Belief Perseverance: Clinging to One's Initial Conceptions After The Basis On Which They Are Formed Has Been Discredited
Framing: The Way an Issue Is Posed or Presented; How an Issue is Framed Can Significantly Affect Decisions and Judgments

In Short 17:19

Humans Are Not the Rational Creatures We Often Presume Them to Be
They Are Often Irrational, But Predictably So
Other Biases We Often Exhibit (Will Visit These in Later Units):

Creativity 20:29

The Ability to Produce Novel and Valuable Ideas
Characteristics/Components of Creativity

Creativity 24:30

Wolfgang Kohler Documented the Aha Experience While Studying Chimps When They Were Trying to Obtain a Banana That Was Out of Reach
Convergent Thinking -- Limits Creativity
Divergent Thinking -- Increases Likelihood of Creativity

Intuition 27:13

An Effortless Immediate, Automatic Feeling or Thought, As Contrasted With Explicit, Conscious Reasoning

Review 29:52

How Can Shortcuts That The Mind Uses Inhibit Our Thinking Skills?
How Do Smart Thinkers Use Intuition?
What is Framing?
What Factors Assist Creativity?
What is the Difference Between Convergent and Divergent Thinking?
How is Intuition Different From Conscious Cognition?

AP Psychology Online Course

Section 1: Introduction
	What is Psychology?	16:30
	History and Approaches	23:18
	AP Psychology Exam	22:47
	Early History	20:55
	Perspectives & Approaches	38:16
	Subfields in Psychology	20:16
Section 2: Research Methods
	The Science of Psychology	49:16
	Research Methods: Correlation	12:38
	The Experimental Process & Ethical Guidelines	36:20
	Research Methods: Statistics	37:16
Section 3: Biological Bases
	Biological Bases of Behavior	23:37
	Biological Bases of Behavior: Neuroanatomy & Organization of the Nervous System	56:59
	Neurons, Neurotransmitters, and Neural Communication	40:38
	Behavioral Genetics, Evolutionary Psychology, & Behavior	36:10
Section 4: Senses and Perception
	Thresholds & Signal Detection Theory	54:03
	Visual Processes	52:22
	Hearing	29:57
	The Other Senses	38:51
	Perception, Part 1	23:59
	Perception, Part 2	28:07
Section 5: States of Consciousness
	States of Consciousness	48:07
	States of Consciousness: Drugs	36:21
Section 6: Learning
	Learning: Intro & Classical Conditioning	33:26
	Classical Conditioning, Part II	21:57
	Operant Conditioning, Part I	31:01
	Operant Conditioning, Part II	31:22
	Cognitive Aspect of Learning	34:01
Section 7: Cognition
	Cognition Memory	51:03
	Memory, Part II	27:44
	Cognition	31:56
	Language	31:02
Section 8: Motivation and Emotion
	Motivation, Part I	27:01
	Motivation, Part II	16:36
	Motivation, Part III	25:52
	Emotions, Stress & Health	28:08
	Emotions: Non-Verbal Communication	28:28
	Stress & Coping	47:10
Section 9: Developmental Psychology
	Development, Part 1	34:36
	Development, Part II	29:30
	Development, Part III	28:31
	Development, Part IV	28:20
	Development, Part V	43:17
Section 10: Personality
	Personality, Part I	29:06
	Personality, Part II	21:39
	Personality, Part III	38:08
	Personality, Part IV	34:01
	Personality, Part V	48:51
Section 11: Testing and Individual Differences
	Testing and Individual Differences, Part I	44:48
	Testing and Individual Differences, Part II	25:00
	Testing & Individual Differences, Part III	30:23
Section 12: Abnormal Behavior
	Abnormal Psychology, Part I	49:59
	Abnormal Psychology, Part II	23:26
	Abnormal Psychology, Part III	37:10
	Abnormal Psychology, Part IV	33:45
	Abnormal Psychology, Part V	28:56
Section 13: Treatment of Abnormal Behavior
	Treatment of Abnormal Behavior, Part I	27:13
	Treatment of Abnormal Behavior, Part II	34:38
	Treatment of Abnormal Behavior, Part III	31:53
	Treatment of Abnormal Behavior, Part IV	35:08
	Biomedical Treatment of Disorders	20:22
Section 14: Social Psychology
	Social Psychology, Part I	52:59
	Social Psychology, Part II	43:45
	Social Psychology, Part III	36:05
	Social Psychology, Part IV	53:05
	Social Psychology, Part V	50:53
Section 15: AP Practice Exam
	AP Practice Exam: Multiple Choice, Part I	49:40
	AP Practice Exam: Multiple Choice, Part II	38:02
	AP Practice Exam: Free Response	40:06

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AP Psychology Cognition

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Cognition

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