Energy and Ecosystems, AP Biology

Energy and Ecosystems

XIII. Ecology: Lecture 4 | 57:42 min

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Energy and Ecosystems

An ecosystem is all organisms and non-living components in one area (biotic and abiotic components).
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be changed from one form to another.
Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) is the total amount of light energy converted to chemical energy.
Net Primary Productivity (NPP) is the GPP minus the energy required for respiration (R).
The law of conservation of mass dictates that mass cannot be created or destroyed, therefore chemicals important to living organisms cycle between parts of the ecosystem. These cycles are known as biogeochemical cycles.
The four most significant biogeochemical cycles for living organisms are: the water cycle, the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the phosphorous cycle.
Burning fossil fuels removes carbon from the reservoirs and relocates the carbon to the atmosphere in the form of CO₂.
Increases in CO₂ levels resulting from fossil fuel consumption have contributed the increase in average global temperatures through the greenhouse effect.

Energy and Ecosystems

Lecture Slides are screen-captured images of important points in the lecture. Students can download and print out these lecture slide images to do practice problems as well as take notes while watching the lecture.

I. Chemistry of Life
	Elements, Compounds, and Chemical Bonds	56:18
	Properties of Water	50:23
	Organic Compounds	53:54
	Nucleic Acids and Proteins	37:23
II. Cell Structure and Function
	Cell Types (Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic)	45:50
	Subcellular Structure	59:38
	Cell Membranes and Transport	53:10
	Cellular Communication	57:09
III. Cell Division
	The Cell Cycle	37:49
	Mitosis	35:01
	Meiosis	60:58
IV. Cellular Energetics
	Enzymes	51:03
	Glycolysis and Anaerobic Respiration	38:01
	Aerobic Respiration	51:06
	Photosynthesis	62:52
V. Molecular Genetics
	DNA Synthesis	38:45
	Transcription and Translation	72:29
	Viral Structure and Genetics	43:12
	Bacterial Genetics and Gene Regulation	49:45
	Eukaryotic Gene Regulation and Mobile Genetic Elements	54:26
	Biotechnology	49:26
VI. Heredity
	Mendelian Genetics	92:08
	Linked Genes and Non-Mendelian Modes of Inheritance	39:38
	Sex-Linked Traits and Pedigree Analysis	43:39
VII. Evolution
	Natural Selection	63:28
	Population Genetic and Evolution	53:22
	Speciation and Patterns of Evolution	51:02
VIII. Diversity of Life
	Classification	60:51
	Bacteria	36:46
	Protists	78:48
	Fungi	35:24
	Invertebrates	63:03
	Vertebrates	60:07
IX. Plants
	Seedless Plants	34:31
	Plant Structure	61:21
	Gymnosperms and Angiosperms	61:51
	Transport of Nutrients and Water in Plants	40:30
	Plant Hormones and Tropisms	48:10
X. Animal Structure and Physiology
	The Respiratory System	48:14
	The Circulatory System	80:21
	The Digestive System	56:11
	The Excretory System	72:14
	The Endocrine System	51:12
	The Nervous System	70:38
	Musculoskeletal System	39:29
	The Immune System	84:28
XI. Animal Reproduction and Development
	Reproduction	61:41
	Development	50:05
XII. Animal Behavior
	Animal Behavior	47:48
XIII. Ecology
	Biomes	57:22
	Population	41:16
	Communities	66:26
	Energy and Ecosystems	57:42
XIV. Laboratory Review
	Laboratory Review	124:30

AP Biology Intro

I. Chemistry of Life
	Elements, Compounds, and Chemical Bonds			56:18
		Intro		0:00
		Elements		0:09
			Elements	0:48
			Matter	0:55
			Naturally Occurring Elements	1:12
			Atomic Number and Atomic Mass	2:39
		Compounds		3:06
			Molecule	3:07
			Compounds	3:14
			Examples	3:20
		Atoms		4:53
			Atoms	4:56
			Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons	5:29
			Isotopes	10:42
		Energy Levels of Electrons		13:01
			Electron Shells	13:13
			Valence Shell	13:22
			Example: Electron Shells and Potential Energy	13:28
		Covalent Bonds		19:52
			Covalent Bonds	19:54
			Examples	20:03
		Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds		23:54
			Polar Bond	24:07
			Nonpolar Bonds	24:17
			Examples	24:25
		Ionic Bonds		29:04
			Ionic Bond, Cations, Anions	29:19
			Example: NaCl	29:30
		Hydrogen Bond		33:18
			Hydrogen Bond	33:20
		Chemical Reactions		35:36
			Example: Reactants, Products and Chemical Reactions	35:45
		Molecular Mass and Molar Concentration		38:45
			Avogadro's Number and Mol	39:12
			Examples: Molecular Mass and Molarity	42:10
		Example 1: Proton, Neutrons and Electrons		47:05
		Example 2: Reactants and Products		49:35
		Example 3: Bonding		52:39
		Example 4: Mass		53:59
	Properties of Water			50:23
		Intro		0:00
		Molecular Structure of Water		0:21
			Molecular Structure of Water	0:27
		Properties of Water		4:30
			Cohesive	4:55
			Transpiration	5:29
			Adhesion	6:20
			Surface Tension	7:17
		Properties of Water, cont.		9:14
			Specific Heat	9:25
			High Heat Capacity	13:24
			High Heat of Evaporation	16:42
		Water as a Solvent		21:13
			Solution	21:28
			Solvent	21:48
			Example: Water as a Solvent	22:22
		Acids and Bases		25:40
			Example	25:41
		pH		36:30
			pH Scale: Acidic, Neutral, and Basic	36:35
		Example 1: Molecular Structure and Properties of Water		41:18
		Example 2: Special Properties of Water		42:53
		Example 3: pH Scale		44:46
		Example 4: Acids and Bases		46:19
	Organic Compounds			53:54
		Intro		0:00
		Organic Compounds		0:09
			Organic Compounds	0:11
			Inorganic Compounds	0:15
			Examples: Organic Compounds	1:15
		Isomers		5:52
			Isomers	5:55
			Structural Isomers	6:23
			Geometric Isomers	8:14
			Enantiomers	9:55
		Functional Groups		12:46
			Examples: Functional Groups	12:59
			Amino Group	13:51
			Carboxyl Group	14:38
			Hydroxyl Group	15:22
			Methyl Group	16:14
			Carbonyl Group	16:30
			Phosphate Group	17:51
		Carbohydrates		18:26
			Carbohydrates	19:07
			Example: Monosaccharides	21:12
		Carbohydrates, cont.		24:11
			Disaccharides, Polysaccharides and Examples	24:21
		Lipids		35:52
			Examples of Lipids	36:04
			Saturated and Unsaturated	38:57
		Phospholipids		43:26
			Phospholipids	43:29
			Example	43:34
		Steroids		46:24
			Cholesterol	46:28
		Example 1: Isomers		48:11
		Example 2: Functional Groups		50:45
		Example 3: Galactose, Ketose, and Aldehyde Sugar		52:24
		Example 4: Class of Molecules		53:06
	Nucleic Acids and Proteins			37:23
		Intro		0:00
		Nucleic Acids		0:09
			Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)	0:29
		Nucleic Acids, cont.		2:56
			Purines	3:10
			Pyridines	3:32
		Double Helix		4:59
			Double Helix and Example	5:01
		Proteins		12:33
			Amino Acids and Polypeptides	12:39
			Examples: Amino Acid	13:25
		Polypeptide Formation		18:09
			Peptide Bonds	18:14
			Primary Structure	18:35
		Protein Structure		23:19
			Secondary Structure	23:22
			Alpha Helices and Beta Pleated Sheets	23:34
		Protein Structure		25:43
			Tertiary Structure	25:44
			5 Types of Interaction	26:56
		Example 1: Complementary DNA Strand		31:45
		Example 2: Differences Between DNA and RNA		33:19
		Example 3: Amino Acids		34:32
		Example 4: Tertiary Structure of Protein		35:46
II. Cell Structure and Function
	Cell Types (Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic)			45:50
		Intro		0:00
		Cell Theory and Cell Types		0:12
			Cell Theory	0:13
			Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells	0:36
			Endosymbiotic Theory	1:13
		Study of Cells		4:07
			Tools and Techniques	4:08
			Light Microscopes	5:08
			Light vs. Electron Microscopes: Magnification	5:18
			Light vs. Electron Microscopes: Resolution	6:26
			Light vs. Electron Microscopes: Specimens	7:53
			Electron Microscopes: Transmission and Scanning	8:28
			Cell Fractionation	10:01
			Cell Fractionation Step 1: Homogenization	10:33
			Cell Fractionation Step 2: Spin	11:24
			Cell Fractionation Step 3: Differential Centrifugation	11:53
		Comparison of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells		14:12
			Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells: Domains	14:43
			Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells: Plasma Membrane	15:40
			Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells: Cell Walls	16:15
			Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells: Genetic Materials	16:38
			Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells: Structures	17:28
			Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells: Unicellular and Multicellular	18:19
			Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells: Size	18:31
			Plasmids	18:52
		Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells		19:22
			Nucleus	19:24
			Organelles	19:48
			Cytoskeleton	20:02
			Cell Wall	20:35
			Ribosomes	20:57
			Size	21:37
		Comparison of Plant and Animal Cells		22:15
			Plasma Membrane	22:55
			Plant Cells Only: Cell Walls	23:12
			Plant Cells Only: Central Vacuole	25:08
			Animal Cells Only: Centrioles	26:40
			Animal Cells Only: Lysosomes	27:43
		Plant vs. Animal Cells		29:16
			Overview of Plant and Animal Cells	29:17
		Evidence for the Endosymbiotic Theory		30:52
			Characteristics of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts	30:54
		Example 1: Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells		35:44
		Example 2: Endosymbiotic Theory and Evidence		38:38
		Example 3: Plant and Animal Cells		41:49
		Example 4: Cell Fractionation		43:44
	Subcellular Structure			59:38
		Intro		0:00
		Prokaryotic Cells		0:09
			Shapes of Prokaryotic Cells	0:22
			Cell Wall	1:19
			Capsule	3:23
			Pili/Fimbria	3:54
			Flagella	4:35
			Nucleoid	6:16
			Plasmid	6:37
			Ribosomes	7:09
		Eukaryotic Cells (Animal Cell Structure)		8:01
			Plasma Membrane	8:13
			Microvilli	8:48
			Nucleus	9:47
			Nucleolus	11:06
			Ribosomes: Free and Bound	12:26
			Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)	13:43
		Eukaryotic Cells (Animal Cell Structure), cont.		14:51
			Endoplasmic Reticulum: Smooth and Rough	15:08
			Golgi Apparatus	17:55
			Vacuole	20:43
			Lysosome	22:01
			Mitochondria	25:40
			Peroxisomes	28:18
		Cytoskeleton		30:41
			Cytoplasm and Cytosol	30:53
			Microtubules: Centrioles, Spindel Fibers, Clagell, Cillia	32:06
			Microfilaments	36:39
			Intermediate Filaments and Kerotin	38:52
		Eukaryotic Cells (Plant Cell Structure)		40:08
			Plasma Membrane, Primary Cell Wall, and Secondary Cell Wall	40:30
			Middle Lamella	43:21
			Central Cauole	44:12
			Plastids: Leucoplasts, Chromoplasts, Chrloroplasts	45:35
			Chloroplasts	47:06
		Example 1: Structures and Functions		48:46
		Example 2: Cell Walls		51:19
		Example 3: Cytoskeleton		52:53
		Example 4: Antibiotics and the Endosymbiosis Theory		56:55
	Cell Membranes and Transport			53:10
		Intro		0:00
		Cell Membrane Structure		0:09
			Phospholipids Bilayer	0:11
			Chemical Structure: Amphipathic and Fatty Acids	0:25
		Cell Membrane Proteins		2:44
			Fluid Mosaic Model	2:45
			Peripheral Proteins and Integral Proteins	3:19
			Transmembrane Proteins	4:34
			Cholesterol	4:48
			Functions of Membrane Proteins	6:39
		Transport Across Cell Membranes		9:52
			Transport Across Cell Membranes	9:53
		Methods of Passive Transport		12:07
			Passive and Active Transport	12:08
			Simple Diffusion	12:45
			Facilitated Diffusion	15:20
		Osmosis		17:17
			Definition and Example of Osmosis	17:18
			Hypertonic, Hypotonic, and Isotonic	21:47
		Active Transport		27:57
			Active Transport	28:17
			Sodium and Potassium Pump	29:45
			Cotransport	34:38
			2 Types of Active Transport	37:09
		Endocytosis and Exocytosis		37:38
			Endocytosis and Exocytosis	37:51
			Types of Endocytosis: Pinocytosis	40:39
			Types of Endocytosis: Phagocytosis	41:02
		Receptor Mediated Endocytosis		41:27
			Receptor Mediated Endocytosis	41:28
		Example 1: Cell Membrane and Permeable Substances		43:59
		Example 2: Osmosis		45:20
		Example 3: Active Transport, Cotransport, Simple and Facilitated Diffusion		47:36
		Example 4: Match Terms with Definition		50:55
	Cellular Communication			57:09
		Intro		0:00
		Extracellular Matrix		0:28
			The Extracellular Matrix (ECM)	0:29
			ECM in Animal Cells	0:55
			Fibronectin and Integrins	1:34
		Intercellular Communication in Plants		2:48
			Intercellular Communication in Plants: Plasmodesmata	2:50
		Cell to Cell Communication in Animal Cells		3:39
			Cell Junctions	3:42
			Desmosomes	3:54
			Tight Junctions	5:07
			Gap Junctions	7:00
		Cell Signaling		8:17
			Cell Signaling: Ligand and Signal Transduction Pathway	8:18
			Direct Contact	8:48
			Over Distances Contact and Hormones	10:09
		Stages of Cell Signaling		11:53
			Reception Phase	11:54
			Transduction Phase	13:49
			Response Phase	14:45
		Cell Membrane Receptors		15:37
			G-Protein Coupled Receptor	15:38
		Cell Membrane Receptor, Cont.		21:37
			Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs)	21:38
			Autophosphorylation, Monomer, and Dimer	22:57
		Cell Membrane Receptor, Cont.		27:01
			Ligand-Gated Ion Channels	27:02
		Intracellular Receptors		29:43
			Intracellular Receptor and Receptor -Ligand Complex	29:44
		Signal Transduction		32:57
			Signal Transduction Pathways	32:58
			Adenylyl Cyclase and cAMP	35:53
		Second Messengers		39:18
			cGMP, Inositol Trisphosphate, and Diacylglycerol	39:20
		Cell Response		45:15
			Cell Response	45:16
			Apoptosis	46:57
		Example 1: Tight Junction and Gap Junction		48:29
		Example 2: Three Phases of Cell Signaling		51:48
		Example 3: Ligands and Binding of Hormone		54:03
		Example 4: Signal Transduction		56:06
III. Cell Division
	The Cell Cycle			37:49
		Intro		0:00
		Functions of Cell Division		0:09
			Overview of Cell Division: Reproduction, Growth, and Repair	0:11
			Important Term: Daughter Cells	2:25
		Chromosome Structure		3:36
			Chromosome Structure: Sister Chromatids and Centromere	3:37
			Chromosome Structure: Chromatin	4:31
			Chromosome with One Chromatid or Two Chromatids	5:25
			Chromosome Structure: Long and Short Arm	6:49
		Mitosis and Meiosis		7:00
			Mitosis	7:41
			Meiosis	8:40
		The Cell Cycle		10:43
			Mitotic Phase and Interphase	10:44
		Cytokinesis		15:51
			Cytokinesis in Animal Cell: Cleavage Furrow	15:52
			Cytokinesis in Plant Cell: Cell Plate	17:28
		Control of the Cell Cycle		18:28
			Cell Cycle Control System and Checkpoints	18:29
		Cyclins and Cyclin Dependent Kinases		21:18
			Cyclins and Cyclin Dependent Kinases (CDKSs)	21:20
			MPF	23:17
			Internal Factor Regulating Cell Cycle	24:00
			External Factor Regulating Cell Cycle	24:53
			Contact Inhibition and Anchorage Dependent	25:53
		Cancer and the Cell Cycle		27:42
			Cancer Cells	27:46
		Example1: Parts of the Chromosome		30:15
		Example 2: Cell Cycle		31:50
		Example 3: Control of the Cell Cycle		33:32
		Example 4: Cancer and the Cell		35:01
	Mitosis			35:01
		Intro		0:00
		Review of the Cell Cycle		0:09
			Interphase: G1 Phase	0:34
			Interphase: S Phase	0:56
			Interphase: G2 Phase	1:31
			M Phase: Mitosis and Cytokinesis	1:47
		Overview of Mitosis		3:08
			What is Mitosis?	3:10
			Overview of Mitosis	3:17
			Diploid and Haploid	5:37
			Homologous Chromosomes	6:04
		The Spindle Apparatus		11:57
			The Spindle Apparatus	12:00
			Centrosomes and Centrioles	12:40
			Microtubule Organizing Center	13:03
			Spindle Fiber of Spindle Microtubules	13:23
			Kinetochores	14:06
			Asters	15:45
		Prophase		16:47
			First Phase of Mitosis: Prophase	16:54
		Metaphase		20:05
			Second Phase of Mitosis: Metaphase	20:10
		Anaphase		22:52
			Third Phase of Mitosis: Anaphase	22:53
		Telophase and Cytokinesis		24:34
			Last Phase of Mitosis: Telophase and Cytokinesis	24:35
		Summary of Mitosis		27:46
			Summary of Mitosis	27:47
		Example 1: Spindle Apparatus		28:50
		Example 2: Last Phase of Mitosis		30:39
		Example 3: Prophase		32:41
		Example 4: Identify the Phase		33:52
	Meiosis			60:58
		Intro		0:00
		Haploid and Diploid Cells		0:09
			Diploid and Somatic Cells	0:29
			Haploid and Gametes	1:20
			Example: Human Cells and Chromosomes	1:41
			Sex Chromosomes	6:00
		Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis		10:42
			Mitosis Vs. Meiosis: Cell Division	10:59
			Mitosis Vs. Meiosis: Daughter Cells	12:31
			Meiosis: Pairing of Homologous Chromosomes	13:40
		Mitosis and Meiosis		14:21
			Process of Mitosis	14:27
			Process of Meiosis	16:12
		Synapsis and Crossing Over		19:14
			Prophase I: Synapsis and Crossing Over	19:15
			Chiasmata	22:33
		Meiosis I		25:49
			Prophase I: Crossing Over	25:50
			Metaphase I: Homologs Line Up	26:00
			Anaphase I: Homologs Separate	28:16
			Telophase I and Cytokinesis	29:15
			Independent Assortment	30:58
		Meiosis II		32:17
			Propphase II	33:50
			Metaphase II	34:06
			Anaphase II	34:50
			Telophase II	36:09
			Cytokinesis	37:00
		Summary of Meiosis		38:15
			Summary of Meiosis	38:16
			Cell Division Mechanism in Plants	41:57
		Example 1: Cell Division and Meiosis		46:15
		Example 2: Phases of Meiosis		50:22
		Example 3: Label the Figure		54:29
		Example 4: Four Differences Between Mitosis and Meiosis		56:37
IV. Cellular Energetics
	Enzymes			51:03
		Intro		0:00
		Law of Thermodynamics		0:08
			Thermodynamics	0:09
			The First Law of Thermodynamics	0:37
			The Second Law of Thermodynamics	1:24
			Entropy	1:35
		The Gibbs Free Energy Equation		3:07
			The Gibbs Free Energy Equation	3:08
		ATP		8:23
			Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)	8:24
			Cellular Respiration	11:32
			Catabolic Pathways	12:28
			Anabolic Pathways	12:54
		Enzymes		14:31
			Enzymes	14:32
			Enzymes and Exergonic Reaction	14:40
			Enzymes and Endergonic Reaction	16:36
		Enzyme Specificity		21:29
			Substrate	21:41
			Induced Fit	23:04
		Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity		25:55
			Substrate Concentration	26:07
			pH	27:10
			Temperature	29:14
			Presence of Cofactors	29:57
		Regulation of Enzyme Activity		31:12
			Competitive Inhibitors	32:13
			Noncompetitive Inhibitors	33:52
			Feedback Inhibition	35:22
		Allosteric Interactions		36:56
			Allosteric Regulators	37:00
		Example 1: Is the Inhibitor Competitive or Noncompetitive?		40:49
		Example 2: Thermophiles		44:18
		Example 3: Exergonic or Endergonic		46:09
		Example 4: Energy Vs. Reaction Progress Graph		48:47
	Glycolysis and Anaerobic Respiration			38:01
		Intro		0:00
		Cellular Respiration Overview		0:13
			Cellular Respiration	0:14
			Anaerobic Respiration vs. Aerobic Respiration	3:50
		Glycolysis Overview		4:48
			Overview of Glycolysis	4:50
		Glycolysis Involves a Redox Reaction		7:02
			Redox Reaction	7:04
		Glycolysis		15:04
			Important Facts About Glycolysis	15:07
			Energy Invested Phase	16:12
			Splitting of Fructose 1,6-Phosphate and Energy Payoff Phase	17:50
			Substrate Level Phophorylation	22:12
		Aerobic Versus Anaerobic Respiration		23:57
			Aerobic Versus Anaerobic Respiration	23:58
		Cellular Respiration Overview		27:15
			When Cellular Respiration is Anaerobic	27:17
			Glycolysis	28:26
			Alcohol Fermentation	28:45
			Lactic Acid Fermentation	29:58
		Example 1: Glycolysis		31:04
		Example 2: Glycolysis, Fermentation and Anaerobic Respiration		33:44
		Example 3: Aerobic Respiration Vs. Anaerobic Respiration		35:25
		Example 4: Exergonic Reaction and Endergonic Reaction		36:42
	Aerobic Respiration			51:06
		Intro		0:00
		Aerobic Vs. Anaerobic Respiration		0:06
			Aerobic and Anaerobic Comparison	0:07
		Review of Glycolysis		1:48
			Overview of Glycolysis	2:06
			Glycolysis: Energy Investment Phase	2:25
			Glycolysis: Energy Payoff Phase	2:58
		Conversion of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA		4:55
			Conversion of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA	4:56
			Energy Formation	8:06
		Mitochondrial Structure		8:58
			Endosymbiosis Theory	9:23
			Matrix	10:00
			Outer Membrane, Inner Membrane, and Intermembrane Space	10:43
			Cristae	11:47
		The Citric Acid Cycle		12:11
			The Citric Acid Cycle (Also Called Krebs Cycle)	12:12
			Substrate Level Phosphorylation	18:47
		Summary of ATP, NADH, and FADH2 Production		23:13
			Process: Glycolysis	23:28
			Process: Acetyl CoA Production	23:36
			Process: Citric Acid Cycle	23:52
		The Electron Transport Chain		24:24
			Oxidative Phosphorylation	24:28
			The Electron Transport Chain and ATP Synthase	25:20
			Carrier Molecules: Cytochromes	27:18
			Carrier Molecules: Flavin Mononucleotide (FMN)	28:05
		Chemiosmosis		32:46
			The Process of Chemiosmosis	32:47
		Summary of ATP Produced by Aerobic Respiration		38:24
			ATP Produced by Aerobic Respiration	38:27
		Example 1: Aerobic Respiration		43:38
		Example 2: Label the Location for Each Process and Structure		45:08
		Example 3: The Electron Transport Chain		47:06
		Example 4: Mitochondrial Inner Membrane		48:38
	Photosynthesis			62:52
		Intro		0:00
		Photosynthesis		0:09
			Introduction to Photosynthesis	0:10
			Autotrophs and Heterotrophs	0:25
			Overview of Photosynthesis Reaction	1:05
		Leaf Anatomy and Chloroplast Structure		2:54
			Chloroplast	2:55
			Cuticle	3:16
			Upper Epidermis	3:27
			Mesophyll	3:40
			Stomates	4:00
			Guard Cells	4:45
			Transpiration	5:01
			Vascular Bundle	5:20
			Stroma and Double Membrane	6:20
			Grana	7:17
			Thylakoids	7:30
			Dark Reaction and Light Reaction	7:46
		Light Reactions		8:43
			Light Reactions	8:47
			Pigments: Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll b, and Carotenoids	9:19
			Wave and Particle	12:10
			Photon	12:34
		Photosystems		13:24
			Photosystems	13:28
			Reaction-Center Complex and Light Harvesting Complexes	14:01
		Noncyclic Photophosphorylation		17:46
			Noncyclic Photophosphorylation Overview	17:47
			What is Photophosphorylation?	18:25
			Noncyclic Photophosphorylation Process	19:07
			Photolysis and The Rest of Noncyclic Photophosphorylation	21:33
		Cyclic Photophosphorylation		31:45
			Cyclic Photophosphorylation	31:46
		Light Independent Reactions		34:34
			The Calvin Cycle	34:35
		C3 Plants and Photorespiration		40:31
			C3 Plants and Photorespiration	40:32
		C4 Plants		45:32
			C4 Plants: Structures and Functions	45:33
		CAM Plants		50:25
			CAM Plants: Structures and Functions	50:35
		Example 1: Calvin Cycle		54:34
		Example 2: C4 Plant		55:48
		Example 3: Photosynthesis and Photorespiration		58:35
		Example 4: CAM Plants		60:41
V. Molecular Genetics
	DNA Synthesis			38:45
		Intro		0:00
		Review of DNA Structure		0:09
			DNA Molecules	0:10
			Nitrogenous Base: Pyrimidines and Purines	1:25
		DNA Double Helix		3:03
			Complementary Strands of DNA	3:12
			5' to 3' & Antiparallel	4:55
		Overview of DNA Replication		7:10
			DNA Replication & Semiconservative	7:11
		DNA Replication		10:26
			Origin of Replication	10:28
			Helicase	11:10
			Single-Strand Binding Protein	12:05
			Topoisomerases	13:14
			DNA Polymerase	14:26
			Primase	15:55
		Leading and Lagging Strands		16:51
			Leading Strand and Lagging Strand	16:52
			Okazaki Fragments	18:10
			DNA Polymerase I	20:11
			Ligase	21:12
		Proofreading and Mismatch Repair		22:18
			Proofreading	22:19
			Mismatch	23:33
		Telomeres		24:58
			Telomeres	24:59
		Example 1: Function of Enzymes During DNA Synthesis		28:09
		Example 2: Accuracy of the DNA Sequence		31:42
		Example 3: Leading Strand and Lagging Strand		32:38
		Example 4: Telomeres		35:40
	Transcription and Translation			72:29
		Intro		0:00
		Transcription and Translation Overview		0:08
			From DNA to RNA to Protein	0:10
		Structure and Types of RNA		2:34
			Structure and Types of RNA	2:48
			mRNA	4:48
			rRNA	5:02
			tRNA	5:22
		Transcription		5:57
			Initiation Phase	6:19
			Elongation Phase	10:13
			Termination Phase	12:36
		RNA Processing		14:14
			Types of RNA Processing	14:15
			Exons and Introns	14:38
			Splicing & Spliceosomes	16:30
			Addition of a 5' Cap and a Poly A tail	18:44
			Alternative Splicing	19:46
		Translation		21:44
			Nucleotide Triplets or Codons	21:45
			Start Codon	23:27
			Stop Codons	23:41
			Coding of Amino Acids and Wobble Position	24:00
		Translation Cont.		26:32
			Transfer RNA (tRNA): Structures and Functions	26:33
		Ribosomes		33:22
			Peptidyl, Aminoacyl, and Exit Site	33:30
		Steps of Translation		35:01
			Initiation Phase	35:15
			Elongation Phase	41:15
			Termination Phase	43:31
		Mutations		47:46
			Types of Mutations	47:47
			Substitutions: Silent	49:14
			Substitutions: Missense	53:30
			Substitutions: Nonsense	57:40
			Insertions and Deletions	59:13
		Example 1: Three Types of Processing that are Performed on pre-mRNA		64:56
		Example 2: The Process of Translation		66:10
		Example 3: Transcription		68:58
		Example 4: Three Types of Substitution Mutations		70:42
	Viral Structure and Genetics			43:12
		Intro		0:00
		Structure of Viruses		0:09
			Structure of Viruses: Capsid and Envelope	0:10
			Bacteriophage	1:48
			Other Viruses	2:28
		Overview of Viral Reproduction		3:15
			Host Range	3:48
			Step 1: Bind to Host Cell	4:39
			Step 2: Viral Nuclei Acids Enter the Cell	5:15
			Step 3: Viral Nucleic Acids & Proteins are Synthesized	5:54
			Step 4: Virus Assembles	6:34
			Step 5: Virus Exits the Cell	6:55
		The Lytic Cycle		7:37
			Steps in the Lytic Cycle	7:38
		The Lysogenic Cycle		11:27
			Temperate Phage	11:34
			Steps in the Lysogenic Cycle	12:09
		RNA Viruses		16:57
			Types of RNA Viruses	17:15
			Positive Sense	18:16
			Negative Sense	18:48
			Reproductive Cycle of RNA Viruses	19:32
		Retroviruses		25:48
			Complementary DNA (cDNA) & Reverse Transcriptase	25:49
			Life Cycle of a Retrovirus	28:22
		Prions		32:42
			Prions: Definition and Examples	32:45
			Viroids	34:46
		Example 1: The Lytic Cycle		35:37
		Example 2: Retrovirus		38:03
		Example 3: Positive Sense RNA vs. Negative Sense RNA		39:10
		Example 4: The Lysogenic Cycle		40:42
	Bacterial Genetics and Gene Regulation			49:45
		Intro		0:00
		Bacterial Genomes		0:09
			Structure of Bacterial Genomes	0:16
		Transformation		1:22
			Transformation	1:23
			Vector	2:49
		Transduction		3:32
			Process of Transduction	3:38
		Conjugation		8:06
			Conjugation & F factor	8:07
		Operons		14:02
			Definition and Example of Operon	14:52
			Structural Genes	16:23
			Promoter Region	17:04
			Regulatory Protein & Operators	17:53
		The lac Operon		20:09
			The lac Operon: Inducible System	20:10
		The trp Operon		28:02
			The trp Operon: Repressible System	28:03
			Corepressor	31:37
			Anabolic & Catabolic	33:12
		Positive Regulation of the lac Operon		34:39
			Positive Regulation of the lac Operon	34:40
		Example 1: The Process of Transformation		39:07
		Example 2: Operon & Terms		43:29
		Example 3: Inducible lac Operon and Repressible trp Operon		45:15
		Example 4: lac Operon		47:10
	Eukaryotic Gene Regulation and Mobile Genetic Elements			54:26
		Intro		0:00
		Mechanism of Gene Regulation		0:11
			Differential Gene Expression	0:13
			Levels of Regulation	2:24
		Chromatin Structure and Modification		4:35
			Chromatin Structure	4:36
			Levels of Packing	5:50
			Euchromatin and Heterochromatin	8:58
			Modification of Chromatin Structure	9:58
			Epigenetic	12:49
		Regulation of Transcription		14:20
			Promoter Region, Exon, and Intron	14:26
			Enhancers: Control Element	15:31
			Enhancer & DNA-Bending Protein	17:25
			Coordinate Control	21:23
			Silencers	23:01
		Post-Transcriptional Regulation		24:05
			Post-Transcriptional Regulation	24:07
			Alternative Splicing	27:19
			Differences in mRNA Stability	28:02
			Non-Coding RNA Molecules: micro RNA & siRNA	30:01
		Regulation of Translation and Post-Translational Modifications		32:31
			Regulation of Translation and Post-Translational Modifications	32:55
			Ubiquitin	35:21
			Proteosomes	36:04
		Transposons		37:50
			Mobile Genetic Elements	37:56
			Barbara McClintock	38:37
			Transposons & Retrotransposons	40:38
			Insertion Sequences	43:14
			Complex Transposons	43:58
		Example 1: Four Mechanisms that Decrease Production of Protein		45:13
		Example 2: Enhancers and Gene Expression		49:09
		Example 3: Primary Transcript		50:41
		Example 4: Retroviruses and Retrotransposons		52:11
	Biotechnology			49:26
		Intro		0:00
		Definition of Biotechnology		0:08
			Biotechnology	0:09
			Genetic Engineering	1:05
			Example: Golden Corn	1:57
		Recombinant DNA		2:41
			Recombinant DNA	2:42
			Transformation	3:24
			Transduction	4:24
			Restriction Enzymes, Restriction Sites, & DNA Ligase	5:32
		Gene Cloning		13:48
			Plasmids	14:20
			Gene Cloning: Step 1	17:35
			Gene Cloning: Step 2	17:57
			Gene Cloning: Step 3	18:53
			Gene Cloning: Step 4	19:46
		Gel Electrophoresis		27:25
			What is Gel Electrophoresis?	27:26
			Gel Electrophoresis: Step 1	28:13
			Gel Electrophoresis: Step 2	28:24
			Gel Electrophoresis: Step 3 & 4	28:39
			Gel Electrophoresis: Step 5	29:55
			Southern Blotting	31:25
		Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)		32:11
			Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)	32:12
			Denaturing Phase	35:40
			Annealing Phase	36:07
			Elongation/ Extension Phase	37:06
		DNA Sequencing and the Human Genome Project		39:19
			DNA Sequencing and the Human Genome Project	39:20
		Example 1: Gene Cloning		40:40
		Example 2: Recombinant DNA		43:04
		Example 3: Match Terms With Descriptions		45:43
		Example 4: Polymerase Chain Reaction		47:36
VI. Heredity
	Mendelian Genetics			92:08
		Intro		0:00
		Background		0:40
			Gregory Mendel & Mendel's Law	0:41
			Blending Hypothesis	1:04
			Particulate Inheritance	2:08
		Terminology		2:55
			Gene	3:05
			Locus	3:57
			Allele	4:37
			Dominant Allele	5:48
			Recessive Allele	7:38
			Genotype	9:22
			Phenotype	10:01
			Homozygous	10:44
			Heterozygous	11:39
			Penetrance	11:57
			Expressivity	14:15
		Mendel's Experiments		15:31
			Mendel's Experiments: Pea Plants	15:32
		The Law of Segregation		21:16
			Mendel's Conclusions	21:17
			The Law of Segregation	22:57
		Punnett Squares		28:27
			Using Punnet Squares	28:30
		The Law of Independent Assortment		32:35
			Monohybrid	32:38
			Dihybrid	33:29
			The Law of Independent Assortment	34:00
		The Law of Independent Assortment, cont.		38:13
			The Law of Independent Assortment: Punnet Squares	38:29
		Meiosis and Mendel's Laws		43:38
			Meiosis and Mendel's Laws	43:39
		Test Crosses		49:07
			Test Crosses Example	49:08
		Probability: Multiplication Rule and the Addition Rule		53:39
			Probability Overview	53:40
			Independent Events & Multiplication Rule	55:40
			Mutually Exclusive Events & Addition Rule	60:25
		Incomplete Dominance, Codominance and Multiple Alleles		62:55
			Incomplete Dominance	62:56
		Incomplete Dominance, Codominance and Multiple Alleles		67:06
			Codominance and Multiple Alleles	67:08
		Polygenic Inheritance and Pleoitropy		70:19
			Polygenic Inheritance and Pleoitropy	70:26
		Epistasis		72:51
			Example of Epistasis	72:52
		Example 1: Genetic of Eye Color and Height		77:39
		Example 2: Blood Type		81:57
		Example 3: Pea Plants		85:09
		Example 4: Coat Color		88:34
	Linked Genes and Non-Mendelian Modes of Inheritance			39:38
		Intro		0:00
		Review of the Law of Independent Assortment		0:14
			Review of the Law of Independent Assortment	0:24
		Linked Genes		6:06
			Linked Genes	6:07
			Bateson & Pannett: Pea Plants	8:00
		Crossing Over and Recombination		15:17
			Crossing Over and Recombination	15:18
		Extranuclear Genes		20:50
			Extranuclear Genes	20:51
			Cytoplasmic Genes	21:31
		Genomic Imprinting		23:45
			Genomic Imprinting	23:58
			Methylation	24:43
		Example 1: Recombination Frequencies & Linkage Map		27:07
		Example 2: Linked Genes		28:39
		Example 3: Match Terms to Correct Descriptions		36:46
		Example 4: Leber's Optic Neuropathy		38:40
	Sex-Linked Traits and Pedigree Analysis			43:39
		Intro		0:00
		Sex-Linked Traits		0:09
			Human Chromosomes, XY, and XX	0:10
			Thomas Morgan's Drosophila	1:44
		X-Inactivation and Barr Bodies		14:48
			X-Inactivation Overview	14:49
			Calico Cats Example	17:04
		Pedigrees		19:24
			Definition and Example of Pedigree	19:25
		Autosomal Dominant Inheritance		20:51
			Example: Huntington's Disease	20:52
		Autosomal Recessive Inheritance		23:04
			Example: Cystic Fibrosis, Tay-Sachs Disease, and Phenylketonuria	23:05
		X-Linked Recessive Inheritance		27:06
			Example: Hemophilia, Duchene Muscular Dystrohpy, and Color Blindess	27:07
		Example 1: Colorblind		29:48
		Example 2: Pedigree		37:07
		Example 3: Inheritance Pattern		39:54
		Example 4: X-inactivation		41:17
VII. Evolution
	Natural Selection			63:28
		Intro		0:00
		Background		0:09
			Work of Other Scientists	0:15
			Aristotle	0:43
			Carl Linnaeus	1:32
			George Cuvier	2:47
			James Hutton	4:10
			Thomas Malthus	5:05
			Jean-Baptiste Lamark	5:45
		Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection		7:50
			Evolution	8:00
			Natural Selection	8:43
			Charles Darwin & The Galapagos Islands	10:20
		Genetic Variation		20:37
			Mutations	20:38
			Independent Assortment	21:04
			Crossing Over	24:40
			Random Fertilization	25:26
		Natural Selection and the Peppered Moth		26:37
			Natural Selection and the Peppered Moth	26:38
		Types of Natural Selection		29:52
			Directional Selection	29:55
			Stabilizing Selection	32:43
			Disruptive Selection	34:21
		Sexual Selection		36:18
			Sexual Dimorphism	37:30
			Intersexual Selection	37:57
			Intrasexual Selection	39:20
		Evidence for Evolution		40:55
			Paleontology: Fossil Record	41:30
			Biogeography	45:35
			Continental Drift	46:06
			Pangaea	46:28
			Marsupials	47:11
		Homologous and Analogous Structure		50:10
			Homologous Structure	50:12
			Analogous Structure	53:21
		Example 1: Genetic Variation & Natural Selection		56:15
		Example 2: Types of Natural Selection		58:07
		Example 3: Mechanisms By Which Genetic Variation is Maintained Within a Population		60:12
		Example 4: Difference Between Homologous and Analogous Structures		61:28
	Population Genetic and Evolution			53:22
		Intro		0:00
		Review of Natural Selection		0:12
			Review of Natural Selection	0:13
		Genetic Drift and Gene Flow		4:40
			Definition of Genetic Drift	4:41
			Example of Genetic Drift: Cholera Epidemic	5:15
			Genetic Drift: Founder Effect	7:28
			Genetic Drift: Bottleneck Effect	10:27
			Gene Flow	13:00
		Quantifying Genetic Variation		14:32
			Average Heterozygosity	15:08
			Nucleotide Variation	17:05
		Maintaining Genetic Variation		18:12
			Heterozygote Advantage	19:45
			Example of Heterozygote Advantage: Sickle Cell Anemia	20:21
			Diploidy	23:44
			Geographic Variation	26:54
			Frequency Dependent Selection and Outbreeding	28:15
			Neutral Traits	30:55
		The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium		31:11
			The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium	31:49
			The Hardy-Weinberg Conditions	32:42
			The Hardy-Weinberg Equation	34:05
			The Hardy-Weinberg Example	36:33
		Example 1: Match Terms to Descriptions		42:28
		Example 2: The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium		44:31
		Example 3: The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium		49:10
		Example 4: Maintaining Genetic Variation		51:30
	Speciation and Patterns of Evolution			51:02
		Intro		0:00
		Early Life on Earth		0:08
			Early Earth	0:09
			1920's Oparin & Haldane	0:58
			Abiogenesis	2:15
			1950's Miller & Urey	2:45
			Ribozymes	5:34
			3.5 Billion Years Ago	6:39
			2.5 Billion Years Ago	7:14
			1.5 Billion Years Ago	7:41
			Endosymbiosis	8:00
			540 Million Years Ago: Cambrian Explosion	9:57
		Gradualism and Punctuated Equilibrium		11:46
			Gradualism	11:47
			Punctuated Equilibrium	12:45
		Adaptive Radiation		15:08
			Adaptive Radiation	15:09
			Example of Adaptive Radiation: Galapogos Islands	17:11
		Convergent Evolution, Divergent Evolution, and Coevolution		18:30
			Convergent Evolution	18:39
			Divergent Evolution	21:30
			Coevolution	23:49
		Speciation		26:27
			Definition and Example of Species	26:29
			Reproductive Isolation: Prezygotive	27:49
			Reproductive Isolation: Post zygotic	29:28
		Allopatric Speciation		30:21
			Allopatric Speciation & Geographic Isolation	30:28
			Genetic Drift	31:31
		Sympatric Speciation		34:10
			Sympatric Speciation	34:11
			Polyploidy & Autopolyploidy	35:12
			Habitat Isolation	39:17
			Temporal Isolation	41:27
			Selection Selection	41:40
		Example 1: Pattern of Evolution		42:53
		Example 2: Sympatric Speciation		45:16
		Example 3: Patterns of Evolution		48:08
		Example 4: Patterns of Evolution		49:27
VIII. Diversity of Life
	Classification			60:51
		Intro		0:00
		Systems of Classification		0:07
			Taxonomy	0:08
			Phylogeny	1:04
			Phylogenetics Tree	1:44
			Cladistics	3:37
		Classification of Organisms		5:31
			Example of Carl Linnaeus System	5:32
		Domains		9:26
			Kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Plantae, Fungi, Animalia	9:27
			Monera	10:06
			Phylogentics Tree: Eurkarya, Bacteria, Archaea	11:58
			Domain Eukarya	12:50
		Domain Bacteria		15:43
			Domain Bacteria	15:46
			Pathogens	16:41
			Decomposers	18:00
		Domain Archaea		19:43
			Extremophiles Archaea: Thermophiles and Halophiles	19:44
			Methanogens	20:58
		Phototrophs, Autotrophs, Chemotrophs and Heterotrophs		24:40
			Phototrophs and Chemotrophs	25:02
			Autotrophs and Heterotrophs	26:54
			Photoautotrophs	28:50
			Photoheterotrophs	29:28
			Chemoautotrophs	30:06
			Chemoheterotrophs	31:37
		Domain Eukarya		32:40
			Domain Eukarya	32:43
			Plant Kingdom	34:28
			Protists	35:48
			Fungi Kingdom	37:06
			Animal Kingdom	38:35
		Body Symmetry		39:25
			Lack Symetry	39:40
			Radial Symmetry: Sea Aneome	40:15
			Bilateral Symmetry	41:55
			Cephalization	43:29
		Germ Layers		44:54
			Diploblastic Animals	45:18
			Triploblastic Animals	45:25
			Ectoderm	45:36
			Endoderm	46:07
			Mesoderm	46:41
		Coelomates		47:14
			Coelom	47:15
			Acoelomate	48:22
			Pseudocoelomate	48:59
			Coelomate	49:31
			Protosomes	50:46
			Deuterosomes	51:20
		Example 1: Domains		53:01
		Example 2: Match Terms with Descriptions		56:00
		Example 3: Kingdom Monera and Domain Archaea		57:50
		Example 4: System of Classification		59:37
	Bacteria			36:46
		Intro		0:00
		Comparison of Domain Archaea and Domain Bacteria		0:08
			Overview of Archaea and Bacteria	0:09
			Archaea vs. Bacteria: Nucleus, Organelles, and Organization of Genetic Material	1:45
			Archaea vs. Bacteria: Cell Walls	2:20
			Archaea vs. Bacteria: Number of Types of RNA Pol	2:29
			Archaea vs. Bacteria: Membrane Lipids	2:53
			Archaea vs. Bacteria: Introns	3:33
			Bacteria: Pathogen	4:03
			Bacteria: Decomposers and Fix Nitrogen	5:18
			Bacteria: Aerobic, Anaerobic, Strict Anaerobes & Facultative Anaerobes	6:02
		Phototrophs, Autotrophs, Heterotrophs and Chemotrophs		7:14
			Phototrophs and Chemotrophs	7:50
			Autotrophs and Heterotrophs	8:53
			Photoautotrophs and Photoheterotrophs	10:15
			Chemoautotroph and Chemoheterotrophs	11:07
		Structure of Bacteria		12:21
			Shapes: Cocci, Bacilli, Vibrio, and Spirochetes	12:26
			Structures: Plasma Membrane and Cell Wall	14:23
			Structures: Nucleoid Region, Plasmid, and Capsule Basal Apparatus, and Filament	15:30
			Structures: Flagella, Basal Apparatus, Hook, and Filament	16:36
			Structures: Pili, Fimbrae and Ribosome	18:00
			Peptidoglycan: Gram + and Gram -	18:50
		Bacterial Genomes and Reproduction		21:14
			Bacterial Genomes	21:21
			Reproduction of Bacteria	22:13
			Transformation	23:26
			Vector	24:34
			Competent	25:15
		Conjugation		25:53
			Conjugation: F+ and R Plasmids	25:55
		Example 1: Species		29:41
		Example 2: Bacteria and Exchange of Genetic Material		32:31
		Example 3: Ways in Which Bacteria are Beneficial to Other Organisms		33:48
		Example 4: Domain Bacteria vs. Domain Archaea		34:53
	Protists			78:48
		Intro		0:00
		Classification of Protists		0:08
			Classification of Protists	0:09
			'Plant-like' Protists	2:06
			'Animal-like' Protists	3:19
			'Fungus-like' Protists	3:57
		Serial Endosymbiosis Theory		5:15
			Endosymbiosis Theory	5:33
			Photosynthetic Protists	7:33
		Life Cycles with a Diploid Adult		13:35
			Life Cycles with a Diploid Adult	13:56
		Life Cycles with a Haploid Adult		15:31
			Life Cycles with a Haploid Adult	15:32
		Alternation of Generations		17:22
			Alternation of Generations: Multicellular Haploid & Diploid Phase	17:23
		Plant-Like Protists		19:58
			Euglenids	20:43
			Dino Flagellates	22:57
			Diatoms	26:07
		Plant-Like Protists		28:44
			Golden Algae	28:45
			Brown Algeas	30:05
		Plant-Like Protists		33:38
			Red Algae	33:39
			Green Algae	35:36
			Green Algae: Chlamydomonus	37:44
		Animal-Like Protists		40:04
			Animal-Like Protists Overview	40:05
			Sporozoans (Apicomplexans)	40:32
			Alveolates	41:41
			Sporozoans (Apicomplexans): Plasmodium & Malaria	42:59
		Animal-Like Protists		48:44
			Kinetoplastids	48:50
			Example of Kinetoplastids: Trypanosomes & African Sleeping Sickness	49:30
			Ciliate	50:42
		Conjugation		53:16
			Conjugation	53:26
		Animal-Like Protists		57:08
			Parabasilids	57:31
			Diplomonads	59:06
			Rhizopods	60:13
			Forams	62:25
			Radiolarians	63:28
		Fungus-Like Protists		64:25
			Fungus-Like Protists Overview	64:26
			Slime Molds	65:15
			Cellular Slime Molds: Feeding Stage	69:21
			Oomycetes	71:15
		Example 1: Alternation of Generations and Sexual Life Cycles		73:05
		Example 2: Match Protists to Their Descriptions		74:12
		Example 3: Three Structures that Protists Use for Motility		76:22
		Example 4: Paramecium		77:04
	Fungi			35:24
		Intro		0:00
		Introduction to Fungi		0:09
			Introduction to Fungi	0:10
			Mycologist	0:34
			Examples of Fungi	0:45
			Hyphae, Mycelia, Chitin, and Coencytic Fungi	2:26
			Ancestral Protists	5:00
		Role of Fungi in the Environment		5:35
			Fungi as Decomposers	5:36
			Mycorrrhiza	6:19
			Lichen	8:52
		Life Cycle of Fungi		11:32
			Asexual Reproduction	11:33
			Sexual Reproduction & Dikaryotic Cell	13:16
		Chytridiomycota		18:12
			Phylum Chytridiomycota	18:17
			Zoospores	18:50
		Zygomycota		19:07
			Coenocytic & Zygomycota Life Cycle	19:08
		Basidiomycota		24:27
			Basidiomycota Overview	24:28
			Basidiomycota Life Cycle	26:11
		Ascomycota		28:00
			Ascomycota Overview	28:01
			Ascomycota Reproduction	28:50
		Example 1: Fungi Fill in the Blank		31:02
		Example 2: Name Two Roles Played by Fungi in the Environment		32:09
		Example 3: Difference Between Diploid Cell and Dikaryon Cell		33:42
		Example 4: Phylum of Fungi, Flagellated Spore, Coencytic		34:36
	Invertebrates			63:03
		Intro		0:00
		Porifera (Sponges)		0:33
			Chordata	0:56
			Porifera (Sponges): Sessile, Layers, Aceolomates, and Filter Feeders	1:24
			Amoebocytes Cell	4:47
			Choanocytes Cell	5:56
			Sexual Reproduction	6:28
		Cnidaria		8:05
			Cnidaria Overview	8:06
			Polyp & Medusa: Gastrovasular Cavity	8:29
			Cnidocytes	9:42
			Anthozoa	10:40
			Cubozoa	11:23
			Hydrozoa	11:53
			Scyphoza	13:25
		Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)		13:58
			Flatworms: Tribloblastic, Bilateral Symmetry, and Cephalization	13:59
			GI System	15:33
			Excretory System	16:07
			Nervous System	17:00
			Turbellarians	17:36
			Trematodes	18:42
			Monageneans	21:32
			Cestoda	21:55
		Rotifera (Rotifers)		23:45
			Rotifers: Digestive Tract, Pseudocoelem, and Stuctures	23:46
			Reproduction: Parthenogenesis	25:33
		Nematoda (Roundworms)		26:44
			Nematoda (Roundworms)	26:45
			Parasites: Pinworms & Hookworms	27:26
		Annelida		28:36
			Annelida Overview	28:37
			Open Circulatory	29:21
			Closed Circulatory	30:18
			Nervous System	31:19
			Excretory System	31:43
			Oligochaete	32:07
			Leeches	33:22
			Polychaetes	34:42
		Mollusca		35:26
			Mollusca Features	35:27
			Major Part 1: Visceral Mass	36:21
			Major Part 2: Head-foot Region	36:49
			Major Part 3: Mantle	37:13
			Radula	37:49
			Circulatory, Reproductive, Excretory, and Nervous System	38:14
		Major Classes of Molluscs		39:12
			Gastropoda	39:17
			Polyplacophora	40:15
			Bivales	40:41
			Cephalopods	41:42
		Arthropoda		43:35
			Arthropoda Overview	43:36
			Segmented Bodies	44:14
			Exoskeleton	44:52
			Jointed Appendages	45:28
			Hemolyph, Excretory & Respiratory System	45:41
			Myriapoda & Centipedes	47:15
			Cheliceriforms	48:20
			Crustcea	49:31
			Herapoda	50:03
		Echinodermata		52:59
			Echinodermata	53:00
			Watrer Vascular System	54:20
		Selected Characteristics of Invertebrates		57:11
			Selected Characteristics of Invertebrates	57:12
		Example 1: Phylum Description		58:43
		Example 2: Complex Animals		59:50
		Example 3: Match Organisms to the Correct Phylum		61:03
		Example 4: Phylum Arthropoda		62:01
	Vertebrates			60:07
		Intro		0:00
		Phylum Chordata		0:06
			Chordates Overview	0:07
			Notochord and Dorsal Hollow Nerve Chord	1:24
			Pharyngeal Clefts, Arches, and Post-anal Tail	3:41
		Invertebrate Chordates		6:48
			Lancelets	7:13
			Tunicates	8:02
			Hagfishes: Craniates	8:55
		Vertebrate Chordates		10:41
			Veterbrates Overview	10:42
			Lampreys	11:00
			Gnathostomes	12:20
			Six Major Classes of Vertebrates	12:53
		chondrichthyes		14:23
			Chondrichthyes Overview	14:24
			Ectothermic and Endothermic	14:42
			Sharks: Lateral Line System, Neuromastsn, and Gills	15:27
			Oviparous and Viviparous	17:23
		Osteichthyes (Bony Fishes)		18:12
			Osteichythes (Bony Fishes) Overview	18:13
			Operculum	19:05
			Swim Bladder	19:53
			Ray-Finned Fishes	20:34
			Lobe-Finned Fishes	20:58
		Tetrapods		22:36
			Tetrapods: Definition and Examples	22:37
		Amphibians		23:53
			Amphibians Overview	23:54
			Order Urodela	25:51
			Order Apoda	27:03
			Order Anura	27:55
		Reptiles		30:19
			Reptiles Overview	30:20
			Amniotes	30:37
			Examples of Reptiles	32:46
			Reptiles: Ectotherms, Gas Exchange, and Heart	33:40
		Orders of Reptiles		34:17
			Sphenodontia, Squamata, Testudines, and Crocodilia	34:21
		Birds		36:09
			Birds and Dinosaurs	36:18
			Theropods	38:00
			Birds: High Metabolism, Respiratory System, Lungs, and Heart	39:04
			Birds: Endothermic, Bones, and Feathers	40:15
		Mammals		42:33
			Mammals Overview	42:35
			Diaphragm and Heart	42:57
			Diphydont	43:44
			Synapsids	44:41
		Monotremes		46:36
			Monotremes	46:37
		Marsupials		47:12
			Marsupials: Definition and Examples	47:16
			Convergent Evolution	48:09
		Eutherians (Placental Mammals)		49:42
			Placenta	49:43
			Order Carnivora	50:48
			Order Raodentia	51:00
			Order Cetaceans	51:14
		Primates		51:41
			Primates Overview	51:42
			Nails and Hands	51:58
			Vision	52:51
			Social Care for Young	53:28
			Brain	53:43
		Example 1: Distinguishing Characteristics of Chordates		54:33
		Example 2: Match Description to Correct Term		55:56
		Example 3: Bird's Anatomy		57:38
		Example 4: Vertebrate Animal, Marine Environment, and Ectothermic		59:14
IX. Plants
	Seedless Plants			34:31
		Intro		0:00
		Origin and Classification of Plants		0:06
			Origin and Classification of Plants	0:07
			Non-Vascular vs. Vascular Plants	1:29
			Seedless Vascular & Seed Plants	2:28
			Angiosperms & Gymnosperms	2:50
		Alternation of Generations		3:54
			Alternation of Generations	3:55
		Bryophytes		7:58
			Overview of Bryrophytes	7:59
			Example: Moss Gametophyte	9:29
			Example: Moss Sporophyte	9:50
		Moss Life Cycle		10:12
			Moss Life Cycle	10:13
		Seedless Vascular Plants		13:23
			Vascular Structures: Cell Walls, and Lignin	13:24
			Homosporous	17:11
			Heterosporous	17:48
		Adaptations to Life on land		21:10
			Adaptation 1: Cell Walls	21:38
			Adaptation 2: Vascular Plants	21:59
			Adaptation 3 : Xylem & Phloem	22:31
			Adaptation 4: Seeds	23:07
			Adaptation 5: Pollen	23:35
			Adaptation 6: Stomata	24:45
			Adaptation 7: Reduced Gametophyte Generation	25:32
		Example 1: Bryophytes		26:39
		Example 2: Sporangium, Lignin, Gametophyte, and Antheridium		28:34
		Example 3: Adaptations to Life on Land		29:47
		Example 4: Life Cycle of Plant		32:06
	Plant Structure			61:21
		Intro		0:00
		Plant Tissue		0:05
			Dermal Tissue	0:15
			Vascular Tissue	0:39
			Ground Tissue	1:31
		Cell Types in Plants		2:14
			Parenchyma Cells	2:24
			Collenchyma Cells	3:21
			Sclerenchyma Cells	3:59
		Xylem		5:04
			Xylem: Tracheids and Vessel Elements	6:12
			Gymnosperms vs. Angiosperms	7:53
		Phloem		8:37
			Phloem: Structures and Function	8:38
			Sieve-Tube Elements	8:45
			Companion Cells & Sieve Plates	9:11
		Roots		10:08
			Taproots & Fibrous	10:09
			Aerial Roots & Prop Roots	11:41
			Structures and Functions of Root: Dicot & Monocot	13:00
			Pericyle	16:57
		The Nitrogen Cylce		18:05
			The Nitrogen Cycle	18:06
		Mycorrhizae		24:20
			Mycorrhizae	24:23
			Ectomycorrhiza	26:03
			Endomycorrhiza	26:25
		Stems		26:53
			Stems	26:54
			Vascular Bundles of Monocots and Dicots	28:18
		Leaves		29:48
			Blade & Petiole	30:13
			Upper Epidermis, Lower Epidermis & Cuticle	30:39
			Ground Tissue, Palisade Mesophyll, Spongy Mesophyll	31:35
			Stomata Pores	33:23
			Guard Cells	34:15
			Vascular Tissues: Vascular Bundles and Bundle Sheath	34:46
		Stomata		36:12
			Stomata & Gas Exchange	36:16
			Guard Cells, Flaccid, and Turgid	36:43
			Water Potential	38:03
			Factors for Opening Stoma	40:35
			Factors Causing Stoma to Close	42:44
		Overview of Plant Growth		44:23
			Overview of Plant Growth	44:24
		Primary Plant Growth		46:19
			Apical Meristems	46:25
			Root Growth: Zone of Cell Division	46:44
			Root Growth: Zone of Cell Elongation	47:35
			Root Growth: Zone of Cell Differentiation	47:55
			Stem Growth: Leaf Primodia	48:16
		Secondary Plant Growth		48:48
			Secondary Plant Growth Overview	48:59
			Vascular Cambium: Secondary Xylem and Phloem	49:38
			Cork Cambium: Periderm and Lenticels	51:10
		Example 1: Leaf Structures		53:30
		Example 2: List Three Types of Plant Tissue and their Major Functions		55:13
		Example 3: What are Two Factors that Stimulate the Opening or Closing of Stomata?		56:58
		Example 4: Plant Growth		59:18
	Gymnosperms and Angiosperms			61:51
		Intro		0:00
		Seed Plants		0:22
			Sporopollenin	0:58
			Heterosporous: Megasporangia	2:49
			Heterosporous: Microsporangia	3:19
		Gymnosperms		5:20
			Gymnosperms	5:21
		Gymnosperm Life Cycle		7:30
			Gymnosperm Life Cycle	7:31
		Flower Structure		15:15
			Petal & Pollination	15:48
			Sepal	16:52
			Stamen: Anther, Filament	17:05
			Pistill: Stigma, Style, Ovule, Ovary	17:55
			Complete Flowers	20:14
		Angiosperm Gametophyte Formation		20:47
			Male Gametophyte: Microsporocytes, Microsporangia & Meiosis	20:57
			Female Gametophyte: Megasporocytes & Meiosis	24:22
		Double Fertilization		25:43
			Double Fertilization: Pollen Tube and Endosperm	25:44
		Angiosperm Life Cycle		29:43
			Angiosperm Life Cycle	29:48
		Seed Structure and Development		33:37
			Seed Structure and Development	33:38
		Pollen Dispersal		37:53
			Abiotic	38:28
			Biotic	39:30
		Prevention of Self-Pollination		40:48
			Mechanism 1	41:08
			Mechanism 2: Dioecious	41:37
			Mechanism 3	42:32
			Self-Incompatibility	43:08
			Gametophytic Self-Incompatibility	44:38
			Sporophytic Self-Incompatibility	46:50
		Asexual Reproduction		48:33
			Asexual Reproduction & Vegetative Propagation	48:34
			Graftiry	50:19
		Monocots and Dicots		51:34
			Monocots vs.Dicots	51:35
		Example 1: Double Fertilization		54:43
		Example 2: Mechanisms of Self-Fertilization		56:02
		Example 3: Monocots vs. Dicots		58:11
		Example 4: Flower Structures		60:11
	Transport of Nutrients and Water in Plants			40:30
		Intro		0:00
		Review of Plant Cell Structure		0:14
			Cell Wall, Plasma Membrane, Middle lamella, and Cytoplasm	0:15
			Plasmodesmata, Chloroplasts, and Central Vacuole	3:24
		Water Absorption by Plants		4:28
			Root Hairs and Mycorrhizae	4:30
			Osmosis and Water Potential	5:41
		Apoplast and Symplast Pathways		10:01
			Apoplast and Symplast Pathways	10:02
		Xylem Structure		21:02
			Tracheids and Vessel Elements	21:03
		Bulk Flow		23:00
			Transpiration	23:26
			Cohesion	25:10
			Adhesion	26:10
		Phloem Structure		27:25
			Pholem	27:26
			Sieve-Tube Elements	27:48
			Companion Cells	28:17
		Translocation		28:42
			Sugar Source and Sugar Sink Overview	28:43
			Example of Sugar Sink	30:01
			Example of Sugar Source	30:48
		Example 1: Match the Following Terms to their Description		33:17
		Example 2: Water Potential		34:58
		Example 3: Bulk Flow		36:56
		Example 4: Sugar Sink and Sugar Source		38:33
	Plant Hormones and Tropisms			48:10
		Intro		0:00
		Plant Cell Signaling		0:17
			Plant Cell Signaling Overview	0:18
			Step 1: Reception	1:03
			Step 2: Transduction	2:32
			Step 3: Response	2:58
			Second Messengers	3:52
			Protein Kinases	4:42
		Auxins		6:14
			Auxins	6:18
			Indoleacetic Acid (IAA)	7:23
		Cytokinins and Gibberellins		11:10
			Cytokinins: Apical Dominance & Delay of Aging	11:16
			Gibberellins: 'Bolting'	13:51
		Ethylene		15:33
			Ethylene	15:34
			Positive Feedback	15:46
			Leaf Abscission	18:05
			Mechanical Stress: Triple Response	19:36
		Abscisic Acid		21:10
			Abscisic Acid	21:15
		Tropisms		23:11
			Positive Tropism	23:50
			Negative Tropism	24:07
			Statoliths	26:21
		Phytochromes and Photoperiodism		27:48
			Phytochromes: PR and PFR	27:56
			Circadian Rhythms	32:06
			Photoperiod	33:13
			Photoperiodism	33:38
			Gerner & Allard	34:35
			Short-Day Plant	35:22
			Long-Day Plant	37:00
		Example 1: Plant Hormones		41:28
		Example 2: Cytokinins & Gibberellins		43:00
		Example 3: Match the Following Terms to their Description		44:46
		Example 4: Hormones & Cell Response		46:14
X. Animal Structure and Physiology
	The Respiratory System			48:14
		Intro		0:00
		Gas Exchange in Animals		0:17
			Respiration	0:19
			Ventilation	1:09
			Characteristics of Respiratory Surfaces	1:53
		Gas Exchange in Aquatic Animals		3:05
			Simple Aquatic Animals	3:06
			Gills & Gas Exchange in Complex Aquatic Animals	3:49
			Countercurrent Exchange	6:12
		Gas Exchange in Terrestrial Animals		13:46
			Earthworms	14:07
			Internal Respiratory	15:35
			Insects	16:55
			Circulatory Fluid	19:06
		The Human Respiratory System		21:21
			Nasal Cavity, Pharynx, Larynx, and Epiglottis	21:50
			Bronchus, Bronchiole, Trachea, and Alveoli	23:38
			Pulmonary Surfactants	28:05
			Circulatory System: Hemoglobin	29:13
		Ventilation		30:28
			Inspiration/Expiration: Diaphragm, Thorax, and Abdomen	30:33
			Breathing Control Center: Regulation of pH	34:34
		Example 1: Tracheal System in Insects		39:08
		Example 2: Countercurrent Exchange		42:09
		Example 3: Respiratory System		44:10
		Example 4: Diaphragm, Ventilation, pH, and Regulation of Breathing		45:31
	The Circulatory System			80:21
		Intro		0:00
		Types of Circulatory Systems		0:07
			Circulatory System Overview	0:08
			Open Circulatory System	3:19
			Closed Circulatory System	5:58
		Blood Vessels		7:51
			Arteries	8:16
			Veins	10:01
			Capillaries	12:35
		Vasoconstriction and Vasodilation		13:10
			Vasoconstriction	13:11
			Vasodilation	13:47
			Thermoregulation	14:32
		Blood		15:53
			Plasma	15:54
			Cellular Component: Red Blood Cells	17:41
			Cellular Component: White Blood Cells	20:18
			Platelets	21:14
			Blood Types	21:35
		Clotting		27:04
			Blood, Fibrin, and Clotting	27:05
			Hemophilia	30:26
		The Heart		31:09
			Structures and Functions of the Heart	31:19
		Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation		40:20
			Double Circuit: Pulmonary Circuit and Systemic Circuit	40:21
		The Cardiac Cycle		42:35
			The Cardiac Cycle	42:36
			Autonomic Nervous System	50:00
		Hemoglobin		51:25
			Hemoglobin & Hemocyanin	51:26
		Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve		55:30
			Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve	55:44
		Transport of Carbon Dioxide		66:31
			Transport of Carbon Dioxide	66:37
		Example 1: Pathway of Blood		72:48
		Example 2: Oxygenated Blood, Pacemaker, and Clotting		75:24
		Example 3: Vasodilation and Vasoconstriction		76:19
		Example 4: Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve		78:13
	The Digestive System			56:11
		Intro		0:00
		Introduction to Digestion		0:07
			Digestive Process	0:08
			Intracellular Digestion	0:45
			Extracellular Digestion	1:44
		Types of Digestive Tracts		2:08
			Gastrovascular Cavity	2:09
			Complete Gastrointestinal Tract (Alimentary Canal)	3:54
			'Crop'	4:43
		The Human Digestive System		5:41
			Structures of the Human Digestive System	5:47
		The Oral Cavity and Esophagus		7:47
			Mechanical & Chemical Digestion	7:48
			Salivary Glands	8:55
			Pharynx and Epigloltis	9:43
			Peristalsis	11:35
		The Stomach		12:57
			Lower Esophageal Sphincter	13:00
			Gastric Gland, Parietal Cells, and Pepsin	14:32
			Mucus Cell	15:48
			Chyme & Pyloric Sphincter	17:32
		The Pancreas		18:31
			Endocrine and Exocrine	19:03
			Amylase	20:05
			Proteases	20:51
			Lipases	22:20
		The Liver		23:08
			The Liver & Production of Bile	23:09
		The Small Intestine		24:37
			The Small Intestine	24:38
			Duodenum	27:44
			Intestinal Enzymes	28:41
		Digestive Enzyme		33:30
			Site of Production: Mouth	33:43
			Site of Production: Stomach	34:03
			Site of Production: Pancreas	34:16
			Site of Production: Small Intestine	36:18
		Absorption of Nutrients		37:51
			Absorption of Nutrients: Jejunum and Ileum	37:52
		The Large Intestine		44:52
			The Large Intestine: Colon, Cecum, and Rectum	44:53
		Regulation of Digestion by Hormones		46:55
			Gastrin	47:21
			Secretin	47:50
			Cholecystokinin (CCK)	48:00
		Example 1: Intestinal Cell, Bile, and Digestion of Fats		48:29
		Example 2: Matching		51:06
		Example 3: Digestion and Absorption of Starch		52:18
		Example 4: Large Intestine and Gastric Fluids		54:52
	The Excretory System			72:14
		Intro		0:00
		Nitrogenous Wastes		0:08
			Nitrogenous Wastes Overview	0:09
			NH3	0:39
			Urea	2:43
			Uric Acid	3:31
		Osmoregulation		4:56
			Osmoregulation	5:05
			Saltwater Fish vs. Freshwater Fish	8:58
		Types of Excretory Systems		13:42
			Protonephridia	13:50
			Metanephridia	16:15
			Malpighian Tubule	19:05
		The Human Excretory System		20:45
			Kidney, Ureter, bladder, Urethra, Medula, and Cortex	20:53
		Filtration, Reabsorption and Secretion		22:53
			Filtration	22:54
			Reabsorption	24:16
			Secretion	25:20
		The Nephron		26:23
			The Nephron	26:24
		The Nephron, cont.		41:45
			Descending Loop of Henle	41:46
			Ascending Loop of Henle	45:45
		Antidiuretic Hormone		54:30
			Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)	54:31
		Aldosterone		58:58
			Aldosterone	58:59
		Example 1: Nephron of an Aquatic Mammal		64:21
		Example 2: Uric Acid & Saltwater Fish		66:36
		Example 3: Nephron		69:14
		Example 4: Gastrointestinal Infection		70:41
	The Endocrine System			51:12
		Intro		0:00
		The Endocrine System Overview		0:07
			Thyroid	0:08
			Exocrine	1:56
			Pancreas	2:44
			Paracrine Signaling	4:06
			Pheromones	5:15
		Mechanisms of Hormone Action		6:06
			Reception, Transduction, and Response	7:06
			Classes of Hormone	10:05
			Negative Feedback: Testosterone Example	12:16
		The Pancreas		15:11
			The Pancreas & islets of Langerhan	15:12
			Insulin	16:02
			Glucagon	17:28
		The Anterior Pituitary		19:25
			Thyroid Stimulating Hormone	20:24
			Adrenocorticotropic Hormone	21:16
			Follide Stimulating Hormone	22:04
			Luteinizing Hormone	22:45
			Growth Hormone	23:45
			Prolactin	24:24
			Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone	24:55
		The Hypothalamus and Posterior Pituitary		25:45
			Hypothalamus, Oxytocin, Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH), and Posterior Pituitary	25:46
		The Adrenal Glands		31:20
			Adrenal Cortex	31:56
			Adrenal Medulla	34:29
		The Thyroid		35:54
			Thyroxine	36:09
			Calcitonin	40:27
		The Parathyroids		41:44
			Parathyroids Hormone (PTH)	41:45
		The Ovaries and Testes		43:32
			Estrogen, Progesterone, and Testosterone	43:33
		Example 1: Match the Following Hormones with their Descriptions		45:38
		Example 2: Pancreas, Endocrine Organ & Exocrine Organ		47:06
		Example 3: Insulin and Glucagon		48:28
		Example 4: Increased Level of Cortisol in Blood		50:25
	The Nervous System			70:38
		Intro		0:00
		Types of Nervous Systems		0:28
			Nerve Net	0:37
			Flatworm	1:07
			Cephalization	1:52
			Arthropods	2:44
			Echinoderms	3:11
		Nervous System Organization		3:40
			Nervous System Organization Overview	3:41
			Automatic Nervous System: Sympathetic & Parasympathetic	4:42
		Neuron Structure		6:57
			Cell Body & Dendrites	7:16
			Axon & Axon Hillock	8:20
			Synaptic Terminals, Mylenin, and Nodes of Ranvier	9:01
		Pre-synaptic and Post-synaptic Cells		10:16
			Pre-synaptic Cells	10:17
			Post-synaptic Cells	11:05
		Types of Neurons		11:50
			Sensory Neurons	11:54
			Motor Neurons	13:12
			Interneurons	14:24
		Resting Potential		15:14
			Membrane Potential	15:25
			Resting Potential: Chemical Gradient	16:06
			Resting Potential: Electrical Gradient	19:18
		Gated Ion Channels		24:40
			Voltage-Gated & Ligand-Gated Ion Channels	24:48
		Action Potential		30:09
			Action Potential Overview	30:10
			Step 1	32:07
			Step 2	32:17
			Step 3	33:12
			Step 4	35:14
			Step 5	36:39
		Action Potential Transmission		39:04
			Action Potential Transmission	39:05
			Speed of Conduction	41:19
			Saltatory Conduction	42:58
		The Synapse		44:17
			The Synapse: Presynaptic & Postsynaptic Cell	44:31
			Examples of Neurotransmitters	50:05
		Brain Structure		51:57
			Meniges	52:19
			Cerebrum	52:56
			Corpus Callosum	53:13
			Gray & White Matter	53:38
			Cerebral Lobes	55:35
			Cerebellum	56:00
			Brainstem	56:30
			Medulla	56:51
			Pons	57:22
			Midbrain	57:55
			Thalamus	58:25
			Hypothalamus	58:58
			Ventricles	59:51
		The Spinal Cord		60:29
			Sensory Stimuli	60:30
			Reflex Arc	61:41
		Example 1: Automatic Nervous System		64:38
		Example 2: Synaptic Terminal and the Release of Neurotransmitters		66:22
		Example 3: Volted-Gated Ion Channels		68:00
		Example 4: Neuron Structure		69:26
	Musculoskeletal System			39:29
		Intro		0:00
		Skeletal System Types and Function		0:30
			Skeletal System	0:31
			Exoskeleton	1:34
			Endoskeleton	2:32
		Skeletal System Components		2:55
			Bone	3:06
			Cartilage	5:04
			Tendons	6:18
			Ligaments	6:34
		Skeletal Muscle		6:52
			Skeletal Muscle	7:24
			Sarcomere	9:50
		The Sliding Filament Theory		13:12
			The Sliding Filament Theory: Muscle Contraction	13:13
		The Neuromuscular Junction		17:24
			The Neuromuscular Junction: Motor Neuron & Muscle Fiber	17:26
			Sarcolemma, Sarcoplasmic	21:54
			Tropomyosin & Troponin	23:35
		Summation and Tetanus		25:26
			Single Twitch, Summation of Two Twitches, and Tetanus	25:27
		Smooth Muscle		28:50
			Smooth Muscle	28:58
		Cardiac Muscle		30:40
			Cardiac Muscle	30:42
		Summary of Muscle Types		32:07
			Summary of Muscle Types	32:08
		Example 1: Contraction and Skeletal Muscle		33:15
		Example 2: Skeletal Muscle and Smooth Muscle		36:23
		Example 3: Muscle Contraction, Bone, and Nonvascularized Connective Tissue		37:31
		Example 4: Sarcomere		38:17
	The Immune System			84:28
		Intro		0:00
		The Lymphatic System		0:16
			The Lymphatic System Overview	0:17
			Function 1	1:23
			Function 2	2:27
		Barrier Defenses		3:41
			Nonspecific vs. Specific Immune Defenses	3:42
			Barrier Defenses	5:12
		Nonspecific Cellular Defenses		7:50
			Nonspecific Cellular Defenses Overview	7:53
			Phagocytes	9:29
			Neutrophils	11:43
			Macrophages	12:15
			Natural Killer Cells	12:55
			Inflammatory Response	14:19
			Complement	18:16
			Interferons	18:40
		Specific Defenses - Acquired Immunity		20:12
			T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes	20:13
		B Cells		23:35
			B Cells & Humoral Immunity	23:41
		Clonal Selection		29:50
			Clonal Selection	29:51
			Primary Immune Response	34:28
			Secondary Immune Response	35:31
			Cytotoxic T Cells	38:41
			Helper T Cells	39:20
		Major Histocompatibility Complex Molecules		40:44
			Major Histocompatibility Complex Molecules	40:55
		Helper T Cells		52:36
			Helper T Cells	52:37
		Mechanisms of Antibody Action		59:00
			Mechanisms of Antibody Action	59:01
			Opsonization	60:01
			Complement System	61:57
		Classes of Antibodies		62:45
			IgM	63:01
			IgA	63:17
			IgG	63:53
			IgE	64:10
		Passive and Active Immunity		65:00
			Passive Immunity	65:01
			Active Immunity	67:49
		Recognition of Self and Non-Self		69:32
			Recognition of Self and Non-Self	69:33
			Self-Tolerance & Autoimmune Diseases	70:50
		Immunodeficiency		73:27
			Immunodeficiency	73:28
			Chemotherapy	73:56
			AID	74:27
		Example 1: Match the Following Terms with their Descriptions		75:26
		Example 2: Three Components of Non-specific Immunity		77:59
		Example 3: Immunodeficient		81:19
		Example 4: Self-tolerance and Autoimmune Diseases		83:07
XI. Animal Reproduction and Development
	Reproduction			61:41
		Intro		0:00
		Asexual Reproduction		0:17
			Fragmentation	0:53
			Fission	1:54
			Parthenogenesis	2:38
		Sexual Reproduction		4:00
			Sexual Reproduction	4:01
			Hermaphrodite	8:08
		The Male Reproduction System		8:54
			Seminiferous Tubules & Leydig Cells	8:55
			Epididymis	9:48
			Seminal Vesicle	11:19
			Bulbourethral	12:37
		The Female Reproductive System		13:25
			Ovaries	13:28
			Fallopian	14:50
			Endometrium, Uterus, Cilia, and Cervix	15:03
			Mammary Glands	16:44
		Spermatogenesis		17:08
			Spermatogenesis	17:09
		Oogenesis		21:01
			Oogenesis	21:02
		The Menstrual Cycle		27:56
			The Menstrual Cycle: Ovarian and Uterine Cycle	27:57
		Summary of the Ovarian and Uterine Cycles		42:54
			Ovarian	42:55
			Uterine	44:51
		Oxytocin and Prolactin		46:33
			Oxytocin	46:34
			Prolactin	47:00
		Regulation of the Male Reproductive System		47:28
			Hormones: GnRH, LH, FSH, and Testosterone	47:29
		Fertilization		50:11
			Fertilization	50:12
			Structures of Egg	50:28
			Acrosomal Reaction	51:36
			Cortical Reaction	53:09
		Example 1: List Three Differences between Spermatogenesis and oogenesis		55:36
		Example 2: Match the Following Terms to their Descriptions		57:34
		Example 3: Pregnancy and the Ovarian Cycle		58:44
		Example 4: Hormone		60:43
	Development			50:05
		Intro		0:00
		Cleavage		0:31
			Cleavage	0:32
			Meroblastic	2:06
			Holoblastic Cleavage	3:23
			Protostomes	4:34
			Deuterostomes	5:13
			Totipotent	5:52
		Blastula Formation		6:42
			Blastula	6:46
		Gastrula Formation		8:12
			Deuterostomes	11:02
			Protostome	11:44
			Ectoderm	12:17
			Mesoderm	12:55
			Endoderm	13:40
		Cytoplasmic Determinants		15:19
			Cytoplasmic Determinants	15:23
		The Bird Embryo		22:52
			Cleavage	23:35
			Blastoderm	23:55
			Primitive Streak	25:38
			Migration and Differentiation	27:09
		Extraembryonic Membranes		28:33
			Extraembryonic Membranes	28:34
			Chorion	30:02
			Yolk Sac	30:36
			Allantois	31:04
		The Mammalian Embryo		32:18
			Cleavage	32:28
			Blastocyst	32:44
			Trophoblast	34:37
			Following Implantation	35:48
		Organogenesis		37:04
			Organogenesis, Notochord and Neural Tube	37:05
		Induction		40:15
			Induction	40:39
			Fate Mapping	41:40
		Example 1: Processes and Stages of Embryological Development		42:49
		Example 2: Transplanted Cells		44:33
		Example 3: Germ Layer		46:41
		Example 4: Extraembryonic Membranes		47:28
XII. Animal Behavior
	Animal Behavior			47:48
		Intro		0:00
		Introduction to Animal Behavior		0:05
			Introduction to Animal Behavior	0:06
			Ethology	1:04
			Proximate Cause & Ultimate Cause	1:46
		Fixed Action Pattern		3:07
			Sign Stimulus	3:40
			Releases and Example	3:55
			Exploitation and Example	7:23
		Learning		8:56
			Habituation, Associative Learning, and Imprinting	8:57
		Habituation		10:03
			Habituation: Definition and Example	10:04
		Associative Learning		11:47
			Classical	12:19
			Operant Conditioning	13:40
			Positive & Negative Reinforcement	14:59
			Positive & Negative Punishment	16:13
			Extinction	17:28
		Imprinting		17:47
			Imprinting: Definition and Example	17:48
		Social Behavior		20:12
			Cooperation	20:38
			Agonistic	21:37
			Dorminance Heirarchies	23:23
			Territoriality	24:08
			Altruism	24:55
		Communication		26:56
			Communication	26:57
		Mating		32:38
			Mating Overview	32:40
			Promiscuous	33:13
			Monogamous	33:32
			Polygamous	33:48
			Intrasexual	34:22
			Intersexual Selection	35:08
		Foraging		36:08
			Optimal Foraging Model	36:39
			Foraging	37:47
		Movement		39:12
			Kinesis	39:20
			Taxis	40:17
			Migration	40:54
		Lunar Cycles		42:02
			Lunar Cycles	42:08
		Example 1: Types of Conditioning		43:19
		Example 2: Match the Following Terms to their Descriptions		44:12
		Example 3: How is the Optimal Foraging Model Used to Explain Foraging Behavior		45:47
		Example 4: Learning		46:54
XIII. Ecology
	Biomes			57:22
		Intro		0:00
		Ecology		0:08
			Ecology	0:14
			Environment	0:22
			Integrates	1:41
			Environment Impacts	2:20
		Population and Distribution		3:20
			Population	3:21
			Range	4:50
			Potential Range	5:10
			Abiotic	5:46
			Biotic	6:22
		Climate		7:55
			Temperature	8:40
			Precipitation	10:00
			Wind	10:37
			Sunlight	10:54
			Macroclimates & Microclimates	11:31
		Other Abiotic Factors		12:20
			Geography	12:28
			Water	13:17
			Soil and Rocks	13:48
		Sunlight		14:42
			Sunlight	14:43
		Seasons		15:43
			June Solstice, December Solstice, March Equinox, and September Equinox	15:44
			Tropics	19:00
			Seasonability	19:39
		Wind and Weather Patterns		20:44
			Vertical Circulation	20:51
			Surface Wind Patterns	25:18
		Local Climate Effects		26:51
			Local Climate Effects	26:52
		Terrestrial Biomes		30:04
			Biome	30:05
			Forest	31:02
		Tropical Forest		32:00
			Tropical Forest	32:01
		Temperate Broadleaf Forest		32:55
			Temperate Broadleaf Forest	32:56
		Coniferous/Taiga Forest		34:10
			Coniferous/Taiga Forest	34:11
		Desert		36:05
			Desert	36:06
		Grassland		37:45
			Grassland	37:46
		Tundra		40:09
			Tundra	40:10
		Freshwater Biomes		42:25
			Freshwater Biomes: Zones	42:27
			Eutrophic Lakes	44:24
			Oligotrophic Lakes	45:01
			Lakes Turnover	46:03
			Rivers	46:51
			Wetlands	47:40
			Estuary	48:11
		Marine Biomes		48:45
			Marine Biomes: Zones	48:46
		Example 1: Diversity of Life		52:01
		Example 2: Marine Biome		52:43
		Example 3: Season		54:19
		Example 4: Biotic vs. Abiotic		55:22
	Population			41:16
		Intro		0:00
		Population		0:07
			Size 'N'	0:16
			Density	0:41
			Dispersion	1:01
			Measure Population: Count Individuals, Sampling, and Proxymeasure	2:26
		Mortality		7:29
			Mortality and Survivorship	7:30
		Age Structure Diagrams		11:52
			Expanding with Rapid Growth, Expanding, and Stable	11:58
		Population Growth		15:39
			Biotic Potential & Exponential Growth	15:43
		Logistic Population Growth		19:07
			Carrying Capacity (K)	19:18
			Limiting Factors	20:55
		Logistic Model and Oscillation		22:55
			Logistic Model and Oscillation	22:56
		Changes to the Carrying Capacity		24:36
			Changes to the Carrying Capacity	24:37
		Growth Strategies		26:07
			'r-selected' or 'r-strategist'	26:23
			'K-selected' or 'K-strategist'	27:47
		Human Population		30:15
			Human Population and Exponential Growth	30:21
		Case Study - Lynx and Hare		31:54
			Case Study - Lynx and Hare	31:55
		Example 1: Estimating Population Size		34:35
		Example 2: Population Growth		36:45
		Example 3: Carrying Capacity		38:17
		Example 4: Types of Dispersion		40:15
	Communities			66:26
		Intro		0:00
		Community		0:07
			Ecosystem	0:40
			Interspecific Interactions	1:14
		Competition		2:45
			Competition Overview	2:46
			Competitive Exclusion	3:57
			Resource Partitioning	4:45
			Character Displacement	6:22
		Predation		7:46
			Predation	7:47
			True Predation	8:05
			Grazing/ Herbivory	8:39
		Predator Adaptation		10:13
			Predator Strategies	10:22
			Physical Features	11:02
		Prey Adaptation		12:14
			Prey Adaptation	12:23
			Aposematic Coloration	13:35
			Batesian Mimicry	14:32
			Size	15:42
		Parasitism		16:48
			Symbiotic Relationship	16:54
			Ectoparasites	18:31
			Endoparasites	18:53
			Hyperparisitism	19:21
			Vector	20:08
			Parasitoids	20:54
		Mutualism		21:23
			Resource - Resource mutualism	21:34
			Service - Resource Mutualism	23:31
			Service - Service Mutualism: Obligate & Facultative	24:23
		Commensalism		26:01
			Commensalism	26:03
			Symbiosis	27:31
		Trophic Structure		28:35
			Producers & Consumers: Autotrophs & Heterotrophs	28:36
		Food Chain		33:26
			Producer & Consumers	33:38
		Food Web		39:01
			Food Web	39:06
		Significant Species within Communities		41:42
			Dominant Species	41:50
			Keystone Species	42:44
			Foundation Species	43:41
		Community Dynamics and Disturbances		44:31
			Disturbances	44:33
			Duration	47:01
			Areal Coverage	47:22
			Frequency	47:48
			Intensity	48:04
			Intermediate Level of Disturbance	48:20
		Ecological Succession		50:29
			Primary and Secondary Ecological Succession	50:30
		Example 1: Competition Situation & Outcome		57:18
		Example 2: Food Chains		60:08
		Example 3: Ecological Units		62:44
		Example 4: Disturbances & Returning to the Original Climax Community		64:30
	Energy and Ecosystems			57:42
		Intro		0:00
		Ecosystem: Biotic & Abiotic Components		0:15
			First Law of Thermodynamics & Energy Flow	0:40
			Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)	3:52
			Net Primary Productivity (NPP)	4:50
		Biogeochemical Cycles		7:16
			Law of Conservation of Mass & Biogeochemical Cycles	7:17
		Water Cycle		10:55
			Water Cycle	10:57
		Carbon Cycle		17:52
			Carbon Cycle	17:53
		Nitrogen Cycle		22:40
			Nitrogen Cycle	22:41
		Phosphorous Cycle		29:34
			Phosphorous Cycle	29:35
		Climate Change		33:20
			Climate Change	33:21
		Eutrophication		39:38
			Nitrogen	40:34
			Phosphorous	41:29
			Eutrophication	42:55
		Example 1: Energy and Ecosystems		45:28
		Example 2: Atmospheric CO2		48:44
		Example 3: Nitrogen Cycle		51:22
		Example 4: Conversion of a Forest near a Lake to Farmland		53:20
XIV. Laboratory Review
	Laboratory Review			124:30
		Intro		0:00
		Lab 1: Diffusion and Osmosis		0:09
			Lab 1: Diffusion and Osmosis	0:10
		Lab 1: Water Potential		11:55
			Lab 1: Water Potential	11:56
		Lab 2: Enzyme Catalysis		18:30
			Lab 2: Enzyme Catalysis	18:31
		Lab 3: Mitosis and Meiosis		27:40
			Lab 3: Mitosis and Meiosis	27:41
		Lab 3: Mitosis and Meiosis		31:50
			Ascomycota Life Cycle	31:51
		Lab 4: Plant Pigments and Photosynthesis		40:36
			Lab 4: Plant Pigments and Photosynthesis	40:37
		Lab 5: Cell Respiration		49:56
			Lab 5: Cell Respiration	49:57
		Lab 6: Molecular Biology		55:06
			Lab 6: Molecular Biology & Transformation 1st Part	55:07
		Lab 6: Molecular Biology		61:16
			Lab 6: Molecular Biology 2nd Part	61:17
		Lab 7: Genetics of Organisms		67:32
			Lab 7: Genetics of Organisms	67:33
		Lab 7: Chi-square Analysis		73:00
			Lab 7: Chi-square Analysis	73:03
		Lab 8: Population Genetics and Evolution		80:41
			Lab 8: Population Genetics and Evolution	80:42
		Lab 9: Transpiration		84:02
			Lab 9: Transpiration	84:03
		Lab 10: Physiology of the Circulatory System		91:05
			Lab 10: Physiology of the Circulatory System	91:06
		Lab 10: Temperature and Metabolism in Ectotherms		98:25
			Lab 10: Temperature and Metabolism in Ectotherms	98:30
		Lab 11: Animal Behavior		100:52
			Lab 11: Animal Behavior	100:53
		Lab 12: Dissolved Oxygen & Aquatic Primary Productivity		105:36
			Lab 12: Dissolved Oxygen & Aquatic Primary Productivity	105:37
		Lab 12: Primary Productivity		109:06
			Lab 12: Primary Productivity	109:07
		Example 1: Chi-square Analysis		116:31
		Example 2: Mitosis		119:28
		Example 3: Transpiration of Plants		120:27
		Example 4: Population Genetic		121:16

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