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Vincent Selhorst-Jones

Vincent Selhorst-Jones

Idea of a Function

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Table of Contents

Section 1: Introduction
Introduction to Math Analysis

10m 3s

Intro
0:00
Title of the Course
0:06
Different Names for the Course
0:07
Precalculus
0:12
Math Analysis
0:14
Trigonometry
0:16
Algebra III
0:20
Geometry II
0:24
College Algebra
0:30
Same Concepts
0:36
How do the Lessons Work?
0:54
Introducing Concepts
0:56
Apply Concepts
1:04
Go through Examples
1:25
Who is this Course For?
1:38
Those Who Need eExtra Help with Class Work
1:52
Those Working on Material but not in Formal Class at School
1:54
Those Who Want a Refresher
2:00
Try to Watch the Whole Lesson
2:20
Understanding is So Important
3:56
What to Watch First
5:26
Lesson #2: Sets, Elements, and Numbers
5:30
Lesson #7: Idea of a Function
5:33
Lesson #6: Word Problems
6:04
What to Watch First, cont.
6:46
Lesson #2: Sets, Elements and Numbers
6:56
Lesson #3: Variables, Equations, and Algebra
6:58
Lesson #4: Coordinate Systems
7:00
Lesson #5: Midpoint, Distance, the Pythagorean Theorem and Slope
7:02
Lesson #6: Word Problems
7:10
Lesson #7: Idea of a Function
7:12
Lesson #8: Graphs
7:14
Graphing Calculator Appendix
7:40
What to Watch Last
8:46
Let's get Started!
9:48
Sets, Elements, & Numbers

45m 11s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:05
Sets and Elements
1:19
Set
1:20
Element
1:23
Name a Set
2:20
Order The Elements Appear In Has No Effect on the Set
2:55
Describing/ Defining Sets
3:28
Directly Say All the Elements
3:36
Clearly Describing All the Members of the Set
3:55
Describing the Quality (or Qualities) Each member Of the Set Has In Common
4:32
Symbols: 'Element of' and 'Subset of'
6:01
Symbol is ∈
6:03
Subset Symbol is ⊂
6:35
Empty Set
8:07
Symbol is ∅
8:20
Since It's Empty, It is a Subset of All Sets
8:44
Union and Intersection
9:54
Union Symbol is ∪
10:08
Intersection Symbol is ∩
10:18
Sets Can Be Weird Stuff
12:26
Can Have Elements in a Set
12:50
We Can Have Infinite Sets
13:09
Example
13:22
Consider a Set Where We Take a Word and Then Repeat It An Ever Increasing Number of Times
14:08
This Set Has Infinitely Many Distinct Elements
14:40
Numbers as Sets
16:03
Natural Numbers ℕ
16:16
Including 0 and the Negatives ℤ
18:13
Rational Numbers ℚ
19:27
Can Express Rational Numbers with Decimal Expansions
22:05
Irrational Numbers
23:37
Real Numbers ℝ: Put the Rational and Irrational Numbers Together
25:15
Interval Notation and the Real Numbers
26:45
Include the End Numbers
27:06
Exclude the End Numbers
27:33
Example
28:28
Interval Notation: Infinity
29:09
Use -∞ or ∞ to Show an Interval Going on Forever in One Direction or the Other
29:14
Always Use Parentheses
29:50
Examples
30:27
Example 1
31:23
Example 2
35:26
Example 3
38:02
Example 4
42:21
Variables, Equations, & Algebra

35m 31s

Intro
0:00
What is a Variable?
0:05
A Variable is a Placeholder for a Number
0:11
Affects the Output of a Function or a Dependent Variable
0:24
Naming Variables
1:51
Useful to Use Symbols
2:21
What is a Constant?
4:14
A Constant is a Fixed, Unchanging Number
4:28
We Might Refer to a Symbol Representing a Number as a Constant
4:51
What is a Coefficient?
5:33
A Coefficient is a Multiplicative Factor on a Variable
5:37
Not All Coefficients are Constants
5:51
Expressions and Equations
6:42
An Expression is a String of Mathematical Symbols That Make Sense Used Together
7:05
An Equation is a Statement That Two Expression Have the Same Value
8:20
The Idea of Algebra
8:51
Equality
8:59
If Two Things Are the Same *Equal), Then We Can Do the Exact Same Operation to Both and the Results Will Be the Same
9:41
Always Do The Exact Same Thing to Both Sides
12:22
Solving Equations
13:23
When You Are Asked to Solve an Equation, You Are Being Asked to Solve for Something
13:33
Look For What Values Makes the Equation True
13:38
Isolate the Variable by Doing Algebra
14:37
Order of Operations
16:02
Why Certain Operations are Grouped
17:01
When You Don't Have to Worry About Order
17:39
Distributive Property
18:15
It Allows Multiplication to Act Over Addition in Parentheses
18:23
We Can Use the Distributive Property in Reverse to Combine Like Terms
19:05
Substitution
20:03
Use Information From One Equation in Another Equation
20:07
Put Your Substitution in Parentheses
20:44
Example 1
23:17
Example 2
25:49
Example 3
28:11
Example 4
30:02
Coordinate Systems

35m 2s

Intro
0:00
Inherent Order in ℝ
0:05
Real Numbers Come with an Inherent Order
0:11
Positive Numbers
0:21
Negative Numbers
0:58
'Less Than' and 'Greater Than'
2:04
Tip To Help You Remember the Signs
2:56
Inequality
4:06
Less Than or Equal and Greater Than or Equal
4:51
One Dimension: The Number Line
5:36
Graphically Represent ℝ on a Number Line
5:43
Note on Infinities
5:57
With the Number Line, We Can Directly See the Order We Put on ℝ
6:35
Ordered Pairs
7:22
Example
7:34
Allows Us to Talk About Two Numbers at the Same Time
9:41
Ordered Pairs of Real Numbers Cannot be Put Into an Order Like we Did with ℝ
10:41
Two Dimensions: The Plane
13:13
We Can Represent Ordered Pairs with the Plane
13:24
Intersection is known as the Origin
14:31
Plotting the Point
14:32
Plane = Coordinate Plane = Cartesian Plane = ℝ²
17:46
The Plane and Quadrants
18:50
Quadrant I
19:04
Quadrant II
19:21
Quadrant III
20:04
Quadrant IV
20:20
Three Dimensions: Space
21:02
Create Ordered Triplets
21:09
Visually Represent This
21:19
Three-Dimension = Space = ℝ³
21:47
Higher Dimensions
22:24
If We Have n Dimensions, We Call It n-Dimensional Space or ℝ to the nth Power
22:31
We Can Represent Places In This n-Dimensional Space As Ordered Groupings of n Numbers
22:41
Hard to Visualize Higher Dimensional Spaces
23:18
Example 1
25:07
Example 2
26:10
Example 3
28:58
Example 4
31:05
Midpoints, Distance, the Pythagorean Theorem, & Slope

48m 43s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:07
Midpoint: One Dimension
2:09
Example of Something More Complex
2:31
Use the Idea of a Middle
3:28
Find the Midpoint of Arbitrary Values a and b
4:17
How They're Equivalent
5:05
Official Midpoint Formula
5:46
Midpoint: Two Dimensions
6:19
The Midpoint Must Occur at the Horizontal Middle and the Vertical Middle
6:38
Arbitrary Pair of Points Example
7:25
Distance: One Dimension
9:26
Absolute Value
10:54
Idea of Forcing Positive
11:06
Distance: One Dimension, Formula
11:47
Distance Between Arbitrary a and b
11:48
Absolute Value Helps When the Distance is Negative
12:41
Distance Formula
12:58
The Pythagorean Theorem
13:24
a²+b²=c²
13:50
Distance: Two Dimensions
14:59
Break Into Horizontal and Vertical Parts and then Use the Pythagorean Theorem
15:16
Distance Between Arbitrary Points (x₁,y₁) and (x₂,y₂)
16:21
Slope
19:30
Slope is the Rate of Change
19:41
m = rise over run
21:27
Slope Between Arbitrary Points (x₁,y₁) and (x₂,y₂)
22:31
Interpreting Slope
24:12
Positive Slope and Negative Slope
25:40
m=1, m=0, m=-1
26:48
Example 1
28:25
Example 2
31:42
Example 3
36:40
Example 4
42:48
Word Problems

56m 31s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:05
What is a Word Problem?
0:45
Describes Any Problem That Primarily Gets Its Ideas Across With Words Instead of Math Symbols
0:48
Requires Us to Think
1:32
Why Are They So Hard?
2:11
Reason 1: No Simple Formula to Solve Them
2:16
Reason 2: Harder to Teach Word Problems
2:47
You Can Learn How to Do Them!
3:51
Grades
7:57
'But I'm Never Going to Use This In Real Life'
9:46
Solving Word Problems
12:58
First: Understand the Problem
13:37
Second: What Are You Looking For?
14:33
Third: Set Up Relationships
16:21
Fourth: Solve It!
17:48
Summary of Method
19:04
Examples on Things Other Than Math
20:21
Math-Specific Method: What You Need Now
25:30
Understand What the Problem is Talking About
25:37
Set Up and Name Any Variables You Need to Know
25:56
Set Up Equations Connecting Those Variables to the Information in the Problem Statement
26:02
Use the Equations to Solve for an Answer
26:14
Tip
26:58
Draw Pictures
27:22
Breaking Into Pieces
28:28
Try Out Hypothetical Numbers
29:52
Student Logic
31:27
Jump In!
32:40
Example 1
34:03
Example 2
39:15
Example 3
44:22
Example 4
50:24
Section 2: Functions
Idea of a Function

39m 54s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:04
What is a Function?
1:06
A Visual Example and Non-Example
1:30
Function Notation
3:47
f(x)
4:05
Express What Sets the Function Acts On
5:45
Metaphors for a Function
6:17
Transformation
6:28
Map
7:17
Machine
8:56
Same Input Always Gives Same Output
10:01
If We Put the Same Input Into a Function, It Will Always Produce the Same Output
10:11
Example of Something That is Not a Function
11:10
A Non-Numerical Example
12:10
The Functions We Will Use
15:05
Unless Told Otherwise, We Will Assume Every Function Takes in Real Numbers and Outputs Real Numbers
15:11
Usually Told the Rule of a Given Function
15:27
How To Use a Function
16:18
Apply the Rule to Whatever Our Input Value Is
16:28
Make Sure to Wrap Your Substitutions in Parentheses
17:09
Functions and Tables
17:36
Table of Values, Sometimes Called a T-Table
17:46
Example
17:56
Domain: What Goes In
18:55
The Domain is the Set of all Inputs That the Function Can Accept
18:56
Example
19:40
Range: What Comes Out
21:27
The Range is the Set of All Possible Outputs a Function Can Assign
21:34
Example
21:49
Another Example Would Be Our Initial Function From Earlier in This Lesson
22:29
Example 1
23:45
Example 2
25:22
Example 3
27:27
Example 4
29:23
Example 5
33:33
Graphs

58m 26s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:04
How to Interpret Graphs
1:17
Input / Independent Variable
1:47
Output / Dependent Variable
2:00
Graph as Input ⇒ Output
2:23
One Way to Think of a Graph: See What Happened to Various Inputs
2:25
Example
2:47
Graph as Location of Solution
4:20
A Way to See Solutions
4:36
Example
5:20
Which Way Should We Interpret?
7:13
Easiest to Think In Terms of How Inputs Are Mapped to Outputs
7:20
Sometimes It's Easier to Think In Terms of Solutions
8:39
Pay Attention to Axes
9:50
Axes Tell Where the Graph Is and What Scale It Has
10:09
Often, The Axes Will Be Square
10:14
Example
12:06
Arrows or No Arrows?
16:07
Will Not Use Arrows at the End of Our Graphs
17:13
Graph Stops Because It Hits the Edge of the Graphing Axes, Not Because the Function Stops
17:18
How to Graph
19:47
Plot Points
20:07
Connect with Curves
21:09
If You Connect with Straight Lines
21:44
Graphs of Functions are Smooth
22:21
More Points ⇒ More Accurate
23:38
Vertical Line Test
27:44
If a Vertical Line Could Intersect More Than One Point On a Graph, It Can Not Be the Graph of a Function
28:41
Every Point on a Graph Tells Us Where the x-Value Below is Mapped
30:07
Domain in Graphs
31:37
The Domain is the Set of All Inputs That a Function Can Accept
31:44
Be Aware That Our Function Probably Continues Past the Edge of Our 'Viewing Window'
33:19
Range in Graphs
33:53
Graphing Calculators: Check the Appendix!
36:55
Example 1
38:37
Example 2
45:19
Example 3
50:41
Example 4
53:28
Example 5
55:50
Properties of Functions

48m 49s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:05
Increasing Decreasing Constant
0:43
Looking at a Specific Graph
1:15
Increasing Interval
2:39
Constant Function
4:15
Decreasing Interval
5:10
Find Intervals by Looking at the Graph
5:32
Intervals Show x-values; Write in Parentheses
6:39
Maximum and Minimums
8:48
Relative (Local) Max/Min
10:20
Formal Definition of Relative Maximum
12:44
Formal Definition of Relative Minimum
13:05
Max/Min, More Terms
14:18
Definition of Extrema
15:01
Average Rate of Change
16:11
Drawing a Line for the Average Rate
16:48
Using the Slope of the Secant Line
17:36
Slope in Function Notation
18:45
Zeros/Roots/x-intercepts
19:45
What Zeros in a Function Mean
20:25
Even Functions
22:30
Odd Functions
24:36
Even/Odd Functions and Graphs
26:28
Example of an Even Function
27:12
Example of an Odd Function
28:03
Example 1
29:35
Example 2
33:07
Example 3
40:32
Example 4
42:34
Function Petting Zoo

29m 20s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:04
Don't Forget that Axes Matter!
1:44
The Constant Function
2:40
The Identity Function
3:44
The Square Function
4:40
The Cube Function
5:44
The Square Root Function
6:51
The Reciprocal Function
8:11
The Absolute Value Function
10:19
The Trigonometric Functions
11:56
f(x)=sin(x)
12:12
f(x)=cos(x)
12:24
Alternate Axes
12:40
The Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
13:35
Exponential Functions
13:44
Logarithmic Functions
14:24
Alternating Axes
15:17
Transformations and Compositions
16:08
Example 1
17:52
Example 2
18:33
Example 3
20:24
Example 4
26:07
Transformation of Functions

48m 35s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:04
Vertical Shift
1:12
Graphical Example
1:21
A Further Explanation
2:16
Vertical Stretch/Shrink
3:34
Graph Shrinks
3:46
Graph Stretches
3:51
A Further Explanation
5:07
Horizontal Shift
6:49
Moving the Graph to the Right
7:28
Moving the Graph to the Left
8:12
A Further Explanation
8:19
Understanding Movement on the x-axis
8:38
Horizontal Stretch/Shrink
12:59
Shrinking the Graph
13:40
Stretching the Graph
13:48
A Further Explanation
13:55
Understanding Stretches from the x-axis
14:12
Vertical Flip (aka Mirror)
16:55
Example Graph
17:07
Multiplying the Vertical Component by -1
17:18
Horizontal Flip (aka Mirror)
18:43
Example Graph
19:01
Multiplying the Horizontal Component by -1
19:54
Summary of Transformations
22:11
Stacking Transformations
24:46
Order Matters
25:20
Transformation Example
25:52
Example 1
29:21
Example 2
34:44
Example 3
38:10
Example 4
43:46
Composite Functions

33m 24s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:04
Arithmetic Combinations
0:40
Basic Operations
1:20
Definition of the Four Arithmetic Combinations
1:40
Composite Functions
2:53
The Function as a Machine
3:32
Function Compositions as Multiple Machines
3:59
Notation for Composite Functions
4:46
Two Formats
6:02
Another Visual Interpretation
7:17
How to Use Composite Functions
8:21
Example of on Function acting on Another
9:17
Example 1
11:03
Example 2
15:27
Example 3
21:11
Example 4
27:06
Piecewise Functions

51m 42s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:04
Analogies to a Piecewise Function
1:16
Different Potatoes
1:41
Factory Production
2:27
Notations for Piecewise Functions
3:39
Notation Examples from Analogies
6:11
Example of a Piecewise (with Table)
7:24
Example of a Non-Numerical Piecewise
11:35
Graphing Piecewise Functions
14:15
Graphing Piecewise Functions, Example
16:26
Continuous Functions
16:57
Statements of Continuity
19:30
Example of Continuous and Non-Continuous Graphs
20:05
Interesting Functions: the Step Function
22:00
Notation for the Step Function
22:40
How the Step Function Works
22:56
Graph of the Step Function
25:30
Example 1
26:22
Example 2
28:49
Example 3
36:50
Example 4
46:11
Inverse Functions

49m 37s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:04
Analogy by picture
1:10
How to Denote the inverse
1:40
What Comes out of the Inverse
1:52
Requirement for Reversing
2:02
The Basketball Factory
2:12
The Importance of Information
2:45
One-to-One
4:04
Requirement for Reversibility
4:21
When a Function has an Inverse
4:43
One-to-One
5:13
Not One-to-One
5:50
Not a Function
6:19
Horizontal Line Test
7:01
How to the test Works
7:12
One-to-One
8:12
Not One-to-One
8:45
Definition: Inverse Function
9:12
Formal Definition
9:21
Caution to Students
10:02
Domain and Range
11:12
Finding the Range of the Function Inverse
11:56
Finding the Domain of the Function Inverse
12:11
Inverse of an Inverse
13:09
Its just x!
13:26
Proof
14:03
Graphical Interpretation
17:07
Horizontal Line Test
17:20
Graph of the Inverse
18:04
Swapping Inputs and Outputs to Draw Inverses
19:02
How to Find the Inverse
21:03
What We Are Looking For
21:21
Reversing the Function
21:38
A Method to Find Inverses
22:33
Check Function is One-to-One
23:04
Swap f(x) for y
23:25
Interchange x and y
23:41
Solve for y
24:12
Replace y with the inverse
24:40
Some Comments
25:01
Keeping Step 2 and 3 Straight
25:44
Switching to Inverse
26:12
Checking Inverses
28:52
How to Check an Inverse
29:06
Quick Example of How to Check
29:56
Example 1
31:48
Example 2
34:56
Example 3
39:29
Example 4
46:19
Variation Direct and Inverse

28m 49s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:06
Direct Variation
1:14
Same Direction
1:21
Common Example: Groceries
1:56
Different Ways to Say that Two Things Vary Directly
2:28
Basic Equation for Direct Variation
2:55
Inverse Variation
3:40
Opposite Direction
3:50
Common Example: Gravity
4:53
Different Ways to Say that Two Things Vary Indirectly
5:48
Basic Equation for Indirect Variation
6:33
Joint Variation
7:27
Equation for Joint Variation
7:53
Explanation of the Constant
8:48
Combined Variation
9:35
Gas Law as a Combination
9:44
Single Constant
10:33
Example 1
10:49
Example 2
13:34
Example 3
15:39
Example 4
19:48
Section 3: Polynomials
Intro to Polynomials

38m 41s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:04
Definition of a Polynomial
1:04
Starting Integer
2:06
Structure of a Polynomial
2:49
The a Constants
3:34
Polynomial Function
5:13
Polynomial Equation
5:23
Polynomials with Different Variables
5:36
Degree
6:23
Informal Definition
6:31
Find the Largest Exponent Variable
6:44
Quick Examples
7:36
Special Names for Polynomials
8:59
Based on the Degree
9:23
Based on the Number of Terms
10:12
Distributive Property (aka 'FOIL')
11:37
Basic Distributive Property
12:21
Distributing Two Binomials
12:55
Longer Parentheses
15:12
Reverse: Factoring
17:26
Long-Term Behavior of Polynomials
17:48
Examples
18:13
Controlling Term--Term with the Largest Exponent
19:33
Positive and Negative Coefficients on the Controlling Term
20:21
Leading Coefficient Test
22:07
Even Degree, Positive Coefficient
22:13
Even Degree, Negative Coefficient
22:39
Odd Degree, Positive Coefficient
23:09
Odd Degree, Negative Coefficient
23:27
Example 1
25:11
Example 2
27:16
Example 3
31:16
Example 4
34:41
Roots (Zeros) of Polynomials

41m 7s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:05
Roots in Graphs
1:17
The x-intercepts
1:33
How to Remember What 'Roots' Are
1:50
Naïve Attempts
2:31
Isolating Variables
2:45
Failures of Isolating Variables
3:30
Missing Solutions
4:59
Factoring: How to Find Roots
6:28
How Factoring Works
6:36
Why Factoring Works
7:20
Steps to Finding Polynomial Roots
9:21
Factoring: How to Find Roots CAUTION
10:08
Factoring is Not Easy
11:32
Factoring Quadratics
13:08
Quadratic Trinomials
13:21
Form of Factored Binomials
13:38
Factoring Examples
14:40
Factoring Quadratics, Check Your Work
16:58
Factoring Higher Degree Polynomials
18:19
Factoring a Cubic
18:32
Factoring a Quadratic
19:04
Factoring: Roots Imply Factors
19:54
Where a Root is, A Factor Is
20:01
How to Use Known Roots to Make Factoring Easier
20:35
Not all Polynomials Can be Factored
22:30
Irreducible Polynomials
23:27
Complex Numbers Help
23:55
Max Number of Roots/Factors
24:57
Limit to Number of Roots Equal to the Degree
25:18
Why there is a Limit
25:25
Max Number of Peaks/Valleys
26:39
Shape Information from Degree
26:46
Example Graph
26:54
Max, But Not Required
28:00
Example 1
28:37
Example 2
31:21
Example 3
36:12
Example 4
38:40
Completing the Square and the Quadratic Formula

39m 43s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:05
Square Roots and Equations
0:51
Taking the Square Root to Find the Value of x
0:55
Getting the Positive and Negative Answers
1:05
Completing the Square: Motivation
2:04
Polynomials that are Easy to Solve
2:20
Making Complex Polynomials Easy to Solve
3:03
Steps to Completing the Square
4:30
Completing the Square: Method
7:22
Move C over
7:35
Divide by A
7:44
Find r
7:59
Add to Both Sides to Complete the Square
8:49
Solving Quadratics with Ease
9:56
The Quadratic Formula
11:38
Derivation
11:43
Final Form
12:23
Follow Format to Use Formula
13:38
How Many Roots?
14:53
The Discriminant
15:47
What the Discriminant Tells Us: How Many Roots
15:58
How the Discriminant Works
16:30
Example 1: Complete the Square
18:24
Example 2: Solve the Quadratic
22:00
Example 3: Solve for Zeroes
25:28
Example 4: Using the Quadratic Formula
30:52
Properties of Quadratic Functions

45m 34s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:05
Parabolas
0:35
Examples of Different Parabolas
1:06
Axis of Symmetry and Vertex
1:28
Drawing an Axis of Symmetry
1:51
Placing the Vertex
2:28
Looking at the Axis of Symmetry and Vertex for other Parabolas
3:09
Transformations
4:18
Reviewing Transformation Rules
6:28
Note the Different Horizontal Shift Form
7:45
An Alternate Form to Quadratics
8:54
The Constants: k, h, a
9:05
Transformations Formed
10:01
Analyzing Different Parabolas
10:10
Switching Forms by Completing the Square
11:43
Vertex of a Parabola
16:30
Vertex at (h, k)
16:47
Vertex in Terms of a, b, and c Coefficients
17:28
Minimum/Maximum at Vertex
18:19
When a is Positive
18:25
When a is Negative
18:52
Axis of Symmetry
19:54
Incredibly Minor Note on Grammar
20:52
Example 1
21:48
Example 2
26:35
Example 3
28:55
Example 4
31:40
Intermediate Value Theorem and Polynomial Division

46m 8s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:05
Reminder: Roots Imply Factors
1:32
The Intermediate Value Theorem
3:41
The Basis: U between a and b
4:11
U is on the Function
4:52
Intermediate Value Theorem, Proof Sketch
5:51
If Not True, the Graph Would Have to Jump
5:58
But Graph is Defined as Continuous
6:43
Finding Roots with the Intermediate Value Theorem
7:01
Picking a and b to be of Different Signs
7:10
Must Be at Least One Root
7:46
Dividing a Polynomial
8:16
Using Roots and Division to Factor
8:38
Long Division Refresher
9:08
The Division Algorithm
12:18
How It Works to Divide Polynomials
12:37
The Parts of the Equation
13:24
Rewriting the Equation
14:47
Polynomial Long Division
16:20
Polynomial Long Division In Action
16:29
One Step at a Time
20:51
Synthetic Division
22:46
Setup
23:11
Synthetic Division, Example
24:44
Which Method Should We Use
26:39
Advantages of Synthetic Method
26:49
Advantages of Long Division
27:13
Example 1
29:24
Example 2
31:27
Example 3
36:22
Example 4
40:55
Complex Numbers

45m 36s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:04
A Wacky Idea
1:02
The Definition of the Imaginary Number
1:22
How it Helps Solve Equations
2:20
Square Roots and Imaginary Numbers
3:15
Complex Numbers
5:00
Real Part and Imaginary Part
5:20
When Two Complex Numbers are Equal
6:10
Addition and Subtraction
6:40
Deal with Real and Imaginary Parts Separately
7:36
Two Quick Examples
7:54
Multiplication
9:07
FOIL Expansion
9:14
Note What Happens to the Square of the Imaginary Number
9:41
Two Quick Examples
10:22
Division
11:27
Complex Conjugates
13:37
Getting Rid of i
14:08
How to Denote the Conjugate
14:48
Division through Complex Conjugates
16:11
Multiply by the Conjugate of the Denominator
16:28
Example
17:46
Factoring So-Called 'Irreducible' Quadratics
19:24
Revisiting the Quadratic Formula
20:12
Conjugate Pairs
20:37
But Are the Complex Numbers 'Real'?
21:27
What Makes a Number Legitimate
25:38
Where Complex Numbers are Used
27:20
Still, We Won't See Much of C
29:05
Example 1
30:30
Example 2
33:15
Example 3
38:12
Example 4
42:07
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

19m 9s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:05
Idea: Hidden Roots
1:16
Roots in Complex Form
1:42
All Polynomials Have Roots
2:08
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
2:21
Where Are All the Imaginary Roots, Then?
3:17
All Roots are Complex
3:45
Real Numbers are a Subset of Complex Numbers
3:59
The n Roots Theorem
5:01
For Any Polynomial, Its Degree is Equal to the Number of Roots
5:11
Equivalent Statement
5:24
Comments: Multiplicity
6:29
Non-Distinct Roots
6:59
Denoting Multiplicity
7:20
Comments: Complex Numbers Necessary
7:41
Comments: Complex Coefficients Allowed
8:55
Comments: Existence Theorem
9:59
Proof Sketch of n Roots Theorem
10:45
First Root
11:36
Second Root
13:23
Continuation to Find all Roots
16:00
Section 4: Rational Functions
Rational Functions and Vertical Asymptotes

33m 22s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:05
Definition of a Rational Function
1:20
Examples of Rational Functions
2:30
Why They are Called 'Rational'
2:47
Domain of a Rational Function
3:15
Undefined at Denominator Zeros
3:25
Otherwise all Reals
4:16
Investigating a Fundamental Function
4:50
The Domain of the Function
5:04
What Occurs at the Zeroes of the Denominator
5:20
Idea of a Vertical Asymptote
6:23
What's Going On?
6:58
Approaching x=0 from the left
7:32
Approaching x=0 from the right
8:34
Dividing by Very Small Numbers Results in Very Large Numbers
9:31
Definition of a Vertical Asymptote
10:05
Vertical Asymptotes and Graphs
11:15
Drawing Asymptotes by Using a Dashed Line
11:27
The Graph Can Never Touch Its Undefined Point
12:00
Not All Zeros Give Asymptotes
13:02
Special Cases: When Numerator and Denominator Go to Zero at the Same Time
14:58
Cancel out Common Factors
15:49
How to Find Vertical Asymptotes
16:10
Figure out What Values Are Not in the Domain of x
16:24
Determine if the Numerator and Denominator Share Common Factors and Cancel
16:45
Find Denominator Roots
17:33
Note if Asymptote Approaches Negative or Positive Infinity
18:06
Example 1
18:57
Example 2
21:26
Example 3
23:04
Example 4
30:01
Horizontal Asymptotes

34m 16s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:05
Investigating a Fundamental Function
0:53
What Happens as x Grows Large
1:00
Different View
1:12
Idea of a Horizontal Asymptote
1:36
What's Going On?
2:24
What Happens as x Grows to a Large Negative Number
2:49
What Happens as x Grows to a Large Number
3:30
Dividing by Very Large Numbers Results in Very Small Numbers
3:52
Example Function
4:41
Definition of a Vertical Asymptote
8:09
Expanding the Idea
9:03
What's Going On?
9:48
What Happens to the Function in the Long Run?
9:51
Rewriting the Function
10:13
Definition of a Slant Asymptote
12:09
Symbolical Definition
12:30
Informal Definition
12:45
Beyond Slant Asymptotes
13:03
Not Going Beyond Slant Asymptotes
14:39
Horizontal/Slant Asymptotes and Graphs
15:43
How to Find Horizontal and Slant Asymptotes
16:52
How to Find Horizontal Asymptotes
17:12
Expand the Given Polynomials
17:18
Compare the Degrees of the Numerator and Denominator
17:40
How to Find Slant Asymptotes
20:05
Slant Asymptotes Exist When n+m=1
20:08
Use Polynomial Division
20:24
Example 1
24:32
Example 2
25:53
Example 3
26:55
Example 4
29:22
Graphing Asymptotes in a Nutshell

49m 7s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:05
A Process for Graphing
1:22
1. Factor Numerator and Denominator
1:50
2. Find Domain
2:53
3. Simplifying the Function
3:59
4. Find Vertical Asymptotes
4:59
5. Find Horizontal/Slant Asymptotes
5:24
6. Find Intercepts
7:35
7. Draw Graph (Find Points as Necessary)
9:21
Draw Graph Example
11:21
Vertical Asymptote
11:41
Horizontal Asymptote
11:50
Other Graphing
12:16
Test Intervals
15:08
Example 1
17:57
Example 2
23:01
Example 3
29:02
Example 4
33:37
Partial Fractions

44m 56s

Intro
0:00
Introduction: Idea
0:04
Introduction: Prerequisites and Uses
1:57
Proper vs. Improper Polynomial Fractions
3:11
Possible Things in the Denominator
4:38
Linear Factors
6:16
Example of Linear Factors
7:03
Multiple Linear Factors
7:48
Irreducible Quadratic Factors
8:25
Example of Quadratic Factors
9:26
Multiple Quadratic Factors
9:49
Mixing Factor Types
10:28
Figuring Out the Numerator
11:10
How to Solve for the Constants
11:30
Quick Example
11:40
Example 1
14:29
Example 2
18:35
Example 3
20:33
Example 4
28:51
Section 5: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions
Understanding Exponents

35m 17s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:05
Fundamental Idea
1:46
Expanding the Idea
2:28
Multiplication of the Same Base
2:40
Exponents acting on Exponents
3:45
Different Bases with the Same Exponent
4:31
To the Zero
5:35
To the First
5:45
Fundamental Rule with the Zero Power
6:35
To the Negative
7:45
Any Number to a Negative Power
8:14
A Fraction to a Negative Power
9:58
Division with Exponential Terms
10:41
To the Fraction
11:33
Square Root
11:58
Any Root
12:59
Summary of Rules
14:38
To the Irrational
17:21
Example 1
20:34
Example 2
23:42
Example 3
27:44
Example 4
31:44
Example 5
33:15
Exponential Functions

47m 4s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:05
Definition of an Exponential Function
0:48
Definition of the Base
1:02
Restrictions on the Base
1:16
Computing Exponential Functions
2:29
Harder Computations
3:10
When to Use a Calculator
3:21
Graphing Exponential Functions: a>1
6:02
Three Examples
6:13
What to Notice on the Graph
7:44
A Story
8:27
Story Diagram
9:15
Increasing Exponentials
11:29
Story Morals
14:40
Application: Compound Interest
15:15
Compounding Year after Year
16:01
Function for Compounding Interest
16:51
A Special Number: e
20:55
Expression for e
21:28
Where e stabilizes
21:55
Application: Continuously Compounded Interest
24:07
Equation for Continuous Compounding
24:22
Exponential Decay 0<a<1
25:50
Three Examples
26:11
Why they 'lose' value
26:54
Example 1
27:47
Example 2
33:11
Example 3
36:34
Example 4
41:28
Introduction to Logarithms

40m 31s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:04
Definition of a Logarithm, Base 2
0:51
Log 2 Defined
0:55
Examples
2:28
Definition of a Logarithm, General
3:23
Examples of Logarithms
5:15
Problems with Unusual Bases
7:38
Shorthand Notation: ln and log
9:44
base e as ln
10:01
base 10 as log
10:34
Calculating Logarithms
11:01
using a calculator
11:34
issues with other bases
11:58
Graphs of Logarithms
13:21
Three Examples
13:29
Slow Growth
15:19
Logarithms as Inverse of Exponentiation
16:02
Using Base 2
16:05
General Case
17:10
Looking More Closely at Logarithm Graphs
19:16
The Domain of Logarithms
20:41
Thinking about Logs like Inverses
21:08
The Alternate
24:00
Example 1
25:59
Example 2
30:03
Example 3
32:49
Example 4
37:34
Properties of Logarithms

42m 33s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:04
Basic Properties
1:12
Inverse--log(exp)
1:43
A Key Idea
2:44
What We Get through Exponentiation
3:18
B Always Exists
4:50
Inverse--exp(log)
5:53
Logarithm of a Power
7:44
Logarithm of a Product
10:07
Logarithm of a Quotient
13:48
Caution! There Is No Rule for loga(M+N)
16:12
Summary of Properties
17:42
Change of Base--Motivation
20:17
No Calculator Button
20:59
A Specific Example
21:45
Simplifying
23:45
Change of Base--Formula
24:14
Example 1
25:47
Example 2
29:08
Example 3
31:14
Example 4
34:13
Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

34m 10s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:05
One to One Property
1:09
Exponential
1:26
Logarithmic
1:44
Specific Considerations
2:02
One-to-One Property
3:30
Solving by One-to-One
4:11
Inverse Property
6:09
Solving by Inverses
7:25
Dealing with Equations
7:50
Example of Taking an Exponent or Logarithm of an Equation
9:07
A Useful Property
11:57
Bring Down Exponents
12:01
Try to Simplify
13:20
Extraneous Solutions
13:45
Example 1
16:37
Example 2
19:39
Example 3
21:37
Example 4
26:45
Example 5
29:37
Application of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

48m 46s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:06
Applications of Exponential Functions
1:07
A Secret!
2:17
Natural Exponential Growth Model
3:07
Figure out r
3:34
A Secret!--Why Does It Work?
4:44
e to the r Morphs
4:57
Example
5:06
Applications of Logarithmic Functions
8:32
Examples
8:43
What Logarithms are Useful For
9:53
Example 1
11:29
Example 2
15:30
Example 3
26:22
Example 4
32:05
Example 5
39:19
Section 6: Trigonometric Functions
Angles

39m 5s

Intro
0:00
Degrees
0:22
Circle is 360 Degrees
0:48
Splitting a Circle
1:13
Radians
2:08
Circle is 2 Pi Radians
2:31
One Radian
2:52
Half-Circle and Right Angle
4:00
Converting Between Degrees and Radians
6:24
Formulas for Degrees and Radians
6:52
Coterminal, Complementary, Supplementary Angles
7:23
Coterminal Angles
7:30
Complementary Angles
9:40
Supplementary Angles
10:08
Example 1: Dividing a Circle
10:38
Example 2: Converting Between Degrees and Radians
11:56
Example 3: Quadrants and Coterminal Angles
14:18
Extra Example 1: Common Angle Conversions
-1
Extra Example 2: Quadrants and Coterminal Angles
-2
Sine and Cosine Functions

43m 16s

Intro
0:00
Sine and Cosine
0:15
Unit Circle
0:22
Coordinates on Unit Circle
1:03
Right Triangles
1:52
Adjacent, Opposite, Hypotenuse
2:25
Master Right Triangle Formula: SOHCAHTOA
2:48
Odd Functions, Even Functions
4:40
Example: Odd Function
4:56
Example: Even Function
7:30
Example 1: Sine and Cosine
10:27
Example 2: Graphing Sine and Cosine Functions
14:39
Example 3: Right Triangle
21:40
Example 4: Odd, Even, or Neither
26:01
Extra Example 1: Right Triangle
-1
Extra Example 2: Graphing Sine and Cosine Functions
-2
Sine and Cosine Values of Special Angles

33m 5s

Intro
0:00
45-45-90 Triangle and 30-60-90 Triangle
0:08
45-45-90 Triangle
0:21
30-60-90 Triangle
2:06
Mnemonic: All Students Take Calculus (ASTC)
5:21
Using the Unit Circle
5:59
New Angles
6:21
Other Quadrants
9:43
Mnemonic: All Students Take Calculus
10:13
Example 1: Convert, Quadrant, Sine/Cosine
13:11
Example 2: Convert, Quadrant, Sine/Cosine
16:48
Example 3: All Angles and Quadrants
20:21
Extra Example 1: Convert, Quadrant, Sine/Cosine
-1
Extra Example 2: All Angles and Quadrants
-2
Modified Sine Waves: Asin(Bx+C)+D and Acos(Bx+C)+D

52m 3s

Intro
0:00
Amplitude and Period of a Sine Wave
0:38
Sine Wave Graph
0:58
Amplitude: Distance from Middle to Peak
1:18
Peak: Distance from Peak to Peak
2:41
Phase Shift and Vertical Shift
4:13
Phase Shift: Distance Shifted Horizontally
4:16
Vertical Shift: Distance Shifted Vertically
6:48
Example 1: Amplitude/Period/Phase and Vertical Shift
8:04
Example 2: Amplitude/Period/Phase and Vertical Shift
17:39
Example 3: Find Sine Wave Given Attributes
25:23
Extra Example 1: Amplitude/Period/Phase and Vertical Shift
-1
Extra Example 2: Find Cosine Wave Given Attributes
-2
Tangent and Cotangent Functions

36m 4s

Intro
0:00
Tangent and Cotangent Definitions
0:21
Tangent Definition
0:25
Cotangent Definition
0:47
Master Formula: SOHCAHTOA
1:01
Mnemonic
1:16
Tangent and Cotangent Values
2:29
Remember Common Values of Sine and Cosine
2:46
90 Degrees Undefined
4:36
Slope and Menmonic: ASTC
5:47
Uses of Tangent
5:54
Example: Tangent of Angle is Slope
6:09
Sign of Tangent in Quadrants
7:49
Example 1: Graph Tangent and Cotangent Functions
10:42
Example 2: Tangent and Cotangent of Angles
16:09
Example 3: Odd, Even, or Neither
18:56
Extra Example 1: Tangent and Cotangent of Angles
-1
Extra Example 2: Tangent and Cotangent of Angles
-2
Secant and Cosecant Functions

27m 18s

Intro
0:00
Secant and Cosecant Definitions
0:17
Secant Definition
0:18
Cosecant Definition
0:33
Example 1: Graph Secant Function
0:48
Example 2: Values of Secant and Cosecant
6:49
Example 3: Odd, Even, or Neither
12:49
Extra Example 1: Graph of Cosecant Function
-1
Extra Example 2: Values of Secant and Cosecant
-2
Inverse Trigonometric Functions

32m 58s

Intro
0:00
Arcsine Function
0:24
Restrictions between -1 and 1
0:43
Arcsine Notation
1:26
Arccosine Function
3:07
Restrictions between -1 and 1
3:36
Cosine Notation
3:53
Arctangent Function
4:30
Between -Pi/2 and Pi/2
4:44
Tangent Notation
5:02
Example 1: Domain/Range/Graph of Arcsine
5:45
Example 2: Arcsin/Arccos/Arctan Values
10:46
Example 3: Domain/Range/Graph of Arctangent
17:14
Extra Example 1: Domain/Range/Graph of Arccosine
-1
Extra Example 2: Arcsin/Arccos/Arctan Values
-2
Computations of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

31m 8s

Intro
0:00
Inverse Trigonometric Function Domains and Ranges
0:31
Arcsine
0:41
Arccosine
1:14
Arctangent
1:41
Example 1: Arcsines of Common Values
2:44
Example 2: Odd, Even, or Neither
5:57
Example 3: Arccosines of Common Values
12:24
Extra Example 1: Arctangents of Common Values
-1
Extra Example 2: Arcsin/Arccos/Arctan Values
-2
Section 7: Trigonometric Identities
Pythagorean Identity

19m 11s

Intro
0:00
Pythagorean Identity
0:17
Pythagorean Triangle
0:27
Pythagorean Identity
0:45
Example 1: Use Pythagorean Theorem to Prove Pythagorean Identity
1:14
Example 2: Find Angle Given Cosine and Quadrant
4:18
Example 3: Verify Trigonometric Identity
8:00
Extra Example 1: Use Pythagorean Identity to Prove Pythagorean Theorem
-1
Extra Example 2: Find Angle Given Cosine and Quadrant
-2
Identity Tan(squared)x+1=Sec(squared)x

23m 16s

Intro
0:00
Main Formulas
0:19
Companion to Pythagorean Identity
0:27
For Cotangents and Cosecants
0:52
How to Remember
0:58
Example 1: Prove the Identity
1:40
Example 2: Given Tan Find Sec
3:42
Example 3: Prove the Identity
7:45
Extra Example 1: Prove the Identity
-1
Extra Example 2: Given Sec Find Tan
-2
Addition and Subtraction Formulas

52m 52s

Intro
0:00
Addition and Subtraction Formulas
0:09
How to Remember
0:48
Cofunction Identities
1:31
How to Remember Graphically
1:44
Where to Use Cofunction Identities
2:52
Example 1: Derive the Formula for cos(A-B)
3:08
Example 2: Use Addition and Subtraction Formulas
16:03
Example 3: Use Addition and Subtraction Formulas to Prove Identity
25:11
Extra Example 1: Use cos(A-B) and Cofunction Identities
-1
Extra Example 2: Convert to Radians and use Formulas
-2
Double Angle Formulas

29m 5s

Intro
0:00
Main Formula
0:07
How to Remember from Addition Formula
0:18
Two Other Forms
1:35
Example 1: Find Sine and Cosine of Angle using Double Angle
3:16
Example 2: Prove Trigonometric Identity using Double Angle
9:37
Example 3: Use Addition and Subtraction Formulas
12:38
Extra Example 1: Find Sine and Cosine of Angle using Double Angle
-1
Extra Example 2: Prove Trigonometric Identity using Double Angle
-2
Half-Angle Formulas

43m 55s

Intro
0:00
Main Formulas
0:09
Confusing Part
0:34
Example 1: Find Sine and Cosine of Angle using Half-Angle
0:54
Example 2: Prove Trigonometric Identity using Half-Angle
11:51
Example 3: Prove the Half-Angle Formula for Tangents
18:39
Extra Example 1: Find Sine and Cosine of Angle using Half-Angle
-1
Extra Example 2: Prove Trigonometric Identity using Half-Angle
-2
Section 8: Applications of Trigonometry
Trigonometry in Right Angles

25m 43s

Intro
0:00
Master Formula for Right Angles
0:11
SOHCAHTOA
0:15
Only for Right Triangles
1:26
Example 1: Find All Angles in a Triangle
2:19
Example 2: Find Lengths of All Sides of Triangle
7:39
Example 3: Find All Angles in a Triangle
11:00
Extra Example 1: Find All Angles in a Triangle
-1
Extra Example 2: Find Lengths of All Sides of Triangle
-2
Law of Sines

56m 40s

Intro
0:00
Law of Sines Formula
0:18
SOHCAHTOA
0:27
Any Triangle
0:59
Graphical Representation
1:25
Solving Triangle Completely
2:37
When to Use Law of Sines
2:55
ASA, SAA, SSA, AAA
2:59
SAS, SSS for Law of Cosines
7:11
Example 1: How Many Triangles Satisfy Conditions, Solve Completely
8:44
Example 2: How Many Triangles Satisfy Conditions, Solve Completely
15:30
Example 3: How Many Triangles Satisfy Conditions, Solve Completely
28:32
Extra Example 1: How Many Triangles Satisfy Conditions, Solve Completely
-1
Extra Example 2: How Many Triangles Satisfy Conditions, Solve Completely
-2
Law of Cosines

49m 5s

Intro
0:00
Law of Cosines Formula
0:23
Graphical Representation
0:34
Relates Sides to Angles
1:00
Any Triangle
1:20
Generalization of Pythagorean Theorem
1:32
When to Use Law of Cosines
2:26
SAS, SSS
2:30
Heron's Formula
4:49
Semiperimeter S
5:11
Example 1: How Many Triangles Satisfy Conditions, Solve Completely
5:53
Example 2: How Many Triangles Satisfy Conditions, Solve Completely
15:19
Example 3: Find Area of a Triangle Given All Side Lengths
26:33
Extra Example 1: How Many Triangles Satisfy Conditions, Solve Completely
-1
Extra Example 2: Length of Third Side and Area of Triangle
-2
Finding the Area of a Triangle

27m 37s

Intro
0:00
Master Right Triangle Formula and Law of Cosines
0:19
SOHCAHTOA
0:27
Law of Cosines
1:23
Heron's Formula
2:22
Semiperimeter S
2:37
Example 1: Area of Triangle with Two Sides and One Angle
3:12
Example 2: Area of Triangle with Three Sides
6:11
Example 3: Area of Triangle with Three Sides, No Heron's Formula
8:50
Extra Example 1: Area of Triangle with Two Sides and One Angle
-1
Extra Example 2: Area of Triangle with Two Sides and One Angle
-2
Word Problems and Applications of Trigonometry

34m 25s

Intro
0:00
Formulas to Remember
0:11
SOHCAHTOA
0:15
Law of Sines
0:55
Law of Cosines
1:48
Heron's Formula
2:46
Example 1: Telephone Pole Height
4:01
Example 2: Bridge Length
7:48
Example 3: Area of Triangular Field
14:20
Extra Example 1: Kite Height
-1
Extra Example 2: Roads to a Town
-2
Section 9: Systems of Equations and Inequalities
Systems of Linear Equations

55m 40s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:04
Graphs as Location of 'True'
1:49
All Locations that Make the Function True
2:25
Understand the Relationship Between Solutions and the Graph
3:43
Systems as Graphs
4:07
Equations as Lines
4:20
Intersection Point
5:19
Three Possibilities for Solutions
6:17
Independent
6:24
Inconsistent
6:36
Dependent
7:06
Solving by Substitution
8:37
Solve for One Variable
9:07
Substitute into the Second Equation
9:34
Solve for Both Variables
10:12
What If a System is Inconsistent or Dependent?
11:08
No Solutions
11:25
Infinite Solutions
12:30
Solving by Elimination
13:56
Example
14:22
Determining the Number of Solutions
16:30
Why Elimination Makes Sense
17:25
Solving by Graphing Calculator
19:59
Systems with More than Two Variables
23:22
Example 1
25:49
Example 2
30:22
Example 3
34:11
Example 4
38:55
Example 5
46:01
(Non-) Example 6
53:37
Systems of Linear Inequalities

1h 13s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:04
Inequality Refresher-Solutions
0:46
Equation Solutions vs. Inequality Solutions
1:02
Essentially a Wide Variety of Answers
1:35
Refresher--Negative Multiplication Flips
1:43
Refresher--Negative Flips: Why?
3:19
Multiplication by a Negative
3:43
The Relationship Flips
3:55
Refresher--Stick to Basic Operations
4:34
Linear Equations in Two Variables
6:50
Graphing Linear Inequalities
8:28
Why It Includes a Whole Section
8:43
How to Show The Difference Between Strict and Not Strict Inequalities
10:08
Dashed Line--Not Solutions
11:10
Solid Line--Are Solutions
11:24
Test Points for Shading
11:42
Example of Using a Point
12:41
Drawing Shading from the Point
13:14
Graphing a System
14:53
Set of Solutions is the Overlap
15:17
Example
15:22
Solutions are Best Found Through Graphing
18:05
Linear Programming-Idea
19:52
Use a Linear Objective Function
20:15
Variables in Objective Function have Constraints
21:24
Linear Programming-Method
22:09
Rearrange Equations
22:21
Graph
22:49
Critical Solution is at the Vertex of the Overlap
23:40
Try Each Vertice
24:35
Example 1
24:58
Example 2
28:57
Example 3
33:48
Example 4
43:10
Nonlinear Systems

41m 1s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:06
Substitution
1:12
Example
1:22
Elimination
3:46
Example
3:56
Elimination is Less Useful for Nonlinear Systems
4:56
Graphing
5:56
Using a Graphing Calculator
6:44
Number of Solutions
8:44
Systems of Nonlinear Inequalities
10:02
Graph Each Inequality
10:06
Dashed and/or Solid
10:18
Shade Appropriately
11:14
Example 1
13:24
Example 2
15:50
Example 3
22:02
Example 4
29:06
Example 4, cont.
33:40
Section 10: Vectors and Matrices
Vectors

1h 9m 31s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:10
Magnitude of the Force
0:22
Direction of the Force
0:48
Vector
0:52
Idea of a Vector
1:30
How Vectors are Denoted
2:00
Component Form
3:20
Angle Brackets and Parentheses
3:50
Magnitude/Length
4:26
Denoting the Magnitude of a Vector
5:16
Direction/Angle
7:52
Always Draw a Picture
8:50
Component Form from Magnitude & Angle
10:10
Scaling by Scalars
14:06
Unit Vectors
16:26
Combining Vectors - Algebraically
18:10
Combining Vectors - Geometrically
19:54
Resultant Vector
20:46
Alternate Component Form: i, j
21:16
The Zero Vector
23:18
Properties of Vectors
24:20
No Multiplication (Between Vectors)
28:30
Dot Product
29:40
Motion in a Medium
30:10
Fish in an Aquarium Example
31:38
More Than Two Dimensions
33:12
More Than Two Dimensions - Magnitude
34:18
Example 1
35:26
Example 2
38:10
Example 3
45:48
Example 4
50:40
Example 4, cont.
56:07
Example 5
1:01:32
Dot Product & Cross Product

35m 20s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:08
Dot Product - Definition
0:42
Dot Product Results in a Scalar, Not a Vector
2:10
Example in Two Dimensions
2:34
Angle and the Dot Product
2:58
The Dot Product of Two Vectors is Deeply Related to the Angle Between the Two Vectors
2:59
Proof of Dot Product Formula
4:14
Won't Directly Help Us Better Understand Vectors
4:18
Dot Product - Geometric Interpretation
4:58
We Can Interpret the Dot Product as a Measure of How Long and How Parallel Two Vectors Are
7:26
Dot Product - Perpendicular Vectors
8:24
If the Dot Product of Two Vectors is 0, We Know They are Perpendicular to Each Other
8:54
Cross Product - Definition
11:08
Cross Product Only Works in Three Dimensions
11:09
Cross Product - A Mnemonic
12:16
The Determinant of a 3 x 3 Matrix and Standard Unit Vectors
12:17
Cross Product - Geometric Interpretations
14:30
The Right-Hand Rule
15:17
Cross Product - Geometric Interpretations Cont.
17:00
Example 1
18:40
Example 2
22:50
Example 3
24:04
Example 4
26:20
Bonus Round
29:18
Proof: Dot Product Formula
29:24
Proof: Dot Product Formula, cont.
30:38
Matrices

54m 7s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:08
Definition of a Matrix
3:02
Size or Dimension
3:58
Square Matrix
4:42
Denoted by Capital Letters
4:56
When are Two Matrices Equal?
5:04
Examples of Matrices
6:44
Rows x Columns
6:46
Talking About Specific Entries
7:48
We Use Capitals to Denote a Matrix and Lower Case to Denotes Its Entries
8:32
Using Entries to Talk About Matrices
10:08
Scalar Multiplication
11:26
Scalar = Real Number
11:34
Example
12:36
Matrix Addition
13:08
Example
14:22
Matrix Multiplication
15:00
Example
18:52
Matrix Multiplication, cont.
19:58
Matrix Multiplication and Order (Size)
25:26
Make Sure Their Orders are Compatible
25:27
Matrix Multiplication is NOT Commutative
28:20
Example
30:08
Special Matrices - Zero Matrix (0)
32:48
Zero Matrix Has 0 for All of its Entries
32:49
Special Matrices - Identity Matrix (I)
34:14
Identity Matrix is a Square Matrix That Has 1 for All Its Entries on the Main Diagonal and 0 for All Other Entries
34:15
Example 1
36:16
Example 2
40:00
Example 3
44:54
Example 4
50:08
Determinants & Inverses of Matrices

47m 12s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:06
Not All Matrices Are Invertible
1:30
What Must a Matrix Have to Be Invertible?
2:08
Determinant
2:32
The Determinant is a Real Number Associated With a Square Matrix
2:38
If the Determinant of a Matrix is Nonzero, the Matrix is Invertible
3:40
Determinant of a 2 x 2 Matrix
4:34
Think in Terms of Diagonals
5:12
Minors and Cofactors - Minors
6:24
Example
6:46
Minors and Cofactors - Cofactors
8:00
Cofactor is Closely Based on the Minor
8:01
Alternating Sign Pattern
9:04
Determinant of Larger Matrices
10:56
Example
13:00
Alternative Method for 3x3 Matrices
16:46
Not Recommended
16:48
Inverse of a 2 x 2 Matrix
19:02
Inverse of Larger Matrices
20:00
Using Inverse Matrices
21:06
When Multiplied Together, They Create the Identity Matrix
21:24
Example 1
23:45
Example 2
27:21
Example 3
32:49
Example 4
36:27
Finding the Inverse of Larger Matrices
41:59
General Inverse Method - Step 1
43:25
General Inverse Method - Step 2
43:27
General Inverse Method - Step 2, cont.
43:27
General Inverse Method - Step 3
45:15
Using Matrices to Solve Systems of Linear Equations

58m 34s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:12
Augmented Matrix
1:44
We Can Represent the Entire Linear System With an Augmented Matrix
1:50
Row Operations
3:22
Interchange the Locations of Two Rows
3:50
Multiply (or Divide) a Row by a Nonzero Number
3:58
Add (or Subtract) a Multiple of One Row to Another
4:12
Row Operations - Keep Notes!
5:50
Suggested Symbols
7:08
Gauss-Jordan Elimination - Idea
8:04
Gauss-Jordan Elimination - Idea, cont.
9:16
Reduced Row-Echelon Form
9:18
Gauss-Jordan Elimination - Method
11:36
Begin by Writing the System As An Augmented Matrix
11:38
Gauss-Jordan Elimination - Method, cont.
13:48
Cramer's Rule - 2 x 2 Matrices
17:08
Cramer's Rule - n x n Matrices
19:24
Solving with Inverse Matrices
21:10
Solving Inverse Matrices, cont.
25:28
The Mighty (Graphing) Calculator
26:38
Example 1
29:56
Example 2
33:56
Example 3
37:00
Example 3, cont.
45:04
Example 4
51:28
Section 11: Alternate Ways to Graph
Parametric Equations

53m 33s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:06
Definition
1:10
Plane Curve
1:24
The Key Idea
2:00
Graphing with Parametric Equations
2:52
Same Graph, Different Equations
5:04
How Is That Possible?
5:36
Same Graph, Different Equations, cont.
5:42
Here's Another to Consider
7:56
Same Plane Curve, But Still Different
8:10
A Metaphor for Parametric Equations
9:36
Think of Parametric Equations As a Way to Describe the Motion of An Object
9:38
Graph Shows Where It Went, But Not Speed
10:32
Eliminating Parameters
12:14
Rectangular Equation
12:16
Caution
13:52
Creating Parametric Equations
14:30
Interesting Graphs
16:38
Graphing Calculators, Yay!
19:18
Example 1
22:36
Example 2
28:26
Example 3
37:36
Example 4
41:00
Projectile Motion
44:26
Example 5
47:00
Polar Coordinates

48m 7s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:04
Polar Coordinates Give Us a Way To Describe the Location of a Point
0:26
Polar Equations and Functions
0:50
Plotting Points with Polar Coordinates
1:06
The Distance of the Point from the Origin
1:09
The Angle of the Point
1:33
Give Points as the Ordered Pair (r,θ)
2:03
Visualizing Plotting in Polar Coordinates
2:32
First Way We Can Plot
2:39
Second Way We Can Plot
2:50
First, We'll Look at Visualizing r, Then θ
3:09
Rotate the Length Counter-Clockwise by θ
3:38
Alternatively, We Can Visualize θ, Then r
4:06
'Polar Graph Paper'
6:17
Horizontal and Vertical Tick Marks Are Not Useful for Polar
6:42
Use Concentric Circles to Helps Up See Distance From the Pole
7:08
Can Use Arc Sectors to See Angles
7:57
Multiple Ways to Name a Point
9:17
Examples
9:30
For Any Angle θ, We Can Make an Equivalent Angle
10:44
Negative Values for r
11:58
If r Is Negative, We Go In The Direction Opposite the One That The Angle θ Points Out
12:22
Another Way to Name the Same Point: Add π to θ and Make r Negative
13:44
Converting Between Rectangular and Polar
14:37
Rectangular Way to Name
14:43
Polar Way to Name
14:52
The Rectangular System Must Have a Right Angle Because It's Based on a Rectangle
15:08
Connect Both Systems Through Basic Trigonometry
15:38
Equation to Convert From Polar to Rectangular Coordinate Systems
16:55
Equation to Convert From Rectangular to Polar Coordinate Systems
17:13
Converting to Rectangular is Easy
17:20
Converting to Polar is a Bit Trickier
17:21
Draw Pictures
18:55
Example 1
19:50
Example 2
25:17
Example 3
31:05
Example 4
35:56
Example 5
41:49
Polar Equations & Functions

38m 16s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:04
Equations and Functions
1:16
Independent Variable
1:21
Dependent Variable
1:30
Examples
1:46
Always Assume That θ Is In Radians
2:44
Graphing in Polar Coordinates
3:29
Graph is the Same Way We Graph 'Normal' Stuff
3:32
Example
3:52
Graphing in Polar - Example, Cont.
6:45
Tips for Graphing
9:23
Notice Patterns
10:19
Repetition
13:39
Graphing Equations of One Variable
14:39
Converting Coordinate Types
16:16
Use the Same Conversion Formulas From the Previous Lesson
16:23
Interesting Graphs
17:48
Example 1
18:03
Example 2
18:34
Graphing Calculators, Yay!
19:07
Plot Random Things, Alter Equations You Understand, Get a Sense for How Polar Stuff Works
19:11
Check Out the Appendix
19:26
Example 1
21:36
Example 2
28:13
Example 3
34:24
Example 4
35:52
Section 12: Complex Numbers and Polar Coordinates
Polar Form of Complex Numbers

40m 43s

Intro
0:00
Polar Coordinates
0:49
Rectangular Form
0:52
Polar Form
1:25
R and Theta
1:51
Polar Form Conversion
2:27
R and Theta
2:35
Optimal Values
4:05
Euler's Formula
4:25
Multiplying Two Complex Numbers in Polar Form
6:10
Multiply r's Together and Add Exponents
6:32
Example 1: Convert Rectangular to Polar Form
7:17
Example 2: Convert Polar to Rectangular Form
13:49
Example 3: Multiply Two Complex Numbers
17:28
Extra Example 1: Convert Between Rectangular and Polar Forms
-1
Extra Example 2: Simplify Expression to Polar Form
-2
DeMoivre's Theorem

57m 37s

Intro
0:00
Introduction to DeMoivre's Theorem
0:10
n nth Roots
3:06
DeMoivre's Theorem: Finding nth Roots
3:52
Relation to Unit Circle
6:29
One nth Root for Each Value of k
7:11
Example 1: Convert to Polar Form and Use DeMoivre's Theorem
8:24
Example 2: Find Complex Eighth Roots
15:27
Example 3: Find Complex Roots
27:49
Extra Example 1: Convert to Polar Form and Use DeMoivre's Theorem
-1
Extra Example 2: Find Complex Fourth Roots
-2
Section 13: Counting & Probability
Counting

31m 36s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:08
Combinatorics
0:56
Definition: Event
1:24
Example
1:50
Visualizing an Event
3:02
Branching line diagram
3:06
Addition Principle
3:40
Example
4:18
Multiplication Principle
5:42
Example
6:24
Pigeonhole Principle
8:06
Example
10:26
Draw Pictures
11:06
Example 1
12:02
Example 2
14:16
Example 3
17:34
Example 4
21:26
Example 5
25:14
Permutations & Combinations

44m 3s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:08
Permutation
0:42
Combination
1:10
Towards a Permutation Formula
2:38
How Many Ways Can We Arrange the Letters A, B, C, D, and E?
3:02
Towards a Permutation Formula, cont.
3:34
Factorial Notation
6:56
Symbol Is '!'
6:58
Examples
7:32
Permutation of n Objects
8:44
Permutation of r Objects out of n
9:04
What If We Have More Objects Than We Have Slots to Fit Them Into?
9:46
Permutation of r Objects Out of n, cont.
10:28
Distinguishable Permutations
14:46
What If Not All Of the Objects We're Permuting Are Distinguishable From Each Other?
14:48
Distinguishable Permutations, cont.
17:04
Combinations
19:04
Combinations, cont.
20:56
Example 1
23:10
Example 2
26:16
Example 3
28:28
Example 4
31:52
Example 5
33:58
Example 6
36:34
Probability

36m 58s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:06
Definition: Sample Space
1:18
Event = Something Happening
1:20
Sample Space
1:36
Probability of an Event
2:12
Let E Be An Event and S Be The Corresponding Sample Space
2:14
'Equally Likely' Is Important
3:52
Fair and Random
5:26
Interpreting Probability
6:34
How Can We Interpret This Value?
7:24
We Can Represent Probability As a Fraction, a Decimal, Or a Percentage
8:04
One of Multiple Events Occurring
9:52
Mutually Exclusive Events
10:38
What If The Events Are Not Mutually Exclusive?
12:20
Taking the Possibility of Overlap Into Account
13:24
An Event Not Occurring
17:14
Complement of E
17:22
Independent Events
19:36
Independent
19:48
Conditional Events
21:28
What Is The Events Are Not Independent Though?
21:30
Conditional Probability
22:16
Conditional Events, cont.
23:51
Example 1
25:27
Example 2
27:09
Example 3
28:57
Example 4
30:51
Example 5
34:15
Section 14: Conic Sections
Parabolas

41m 27s

Intro
0:00
What is a Parabola?
0:20
Definition of a Parabola
0:29
Focus
0:59
Directrix
1:15
Axis of Symmetry
3:08
Vertex
3:33
Minimum or Maximum
3:44
Standard Form
4:59
Horizontal Parabolas
5:08
Vertex Form
5:19
Upward or Downward
5:41
Example: Standard Form
6:06
Graphing Parabolas
8:31
Shifting
8:51
Example: Completing the Square
9:22
Symmetry and Translation
12:18
Example: Graph Parabola
12:40
Latus Rectum
17:13
Length
18:15
Example: Latus Rectum
18:35
Horizontal Parabolas
18:57
Not Functions
20:08
Example: Horizontal Parabola
21:21
Focus and Directrix
24:11
Horizontal
24:48
Example 1: Parabola Standard Form
25:12
Example 2: Graph Parabola
30:00
Example 3: Graph Parabola
33:13
Example 4: Parabola Equation
37:28
Circles

21m 3s

Intro
0:00
What are Circles?
0:08
Example: Equidistant
0:17
Radius
0:32
Equation of a Circle
0:44
Example: Standard Form
1:11
Graphing Circles
1:47
Example: Circle
1:56
Center Not at Origin
3:07
Example: Completing the Square
3:51
Example 1: Equation of Circle
6:44
Example 2: Center and Radius
11:51
Example 3: Radius
15:08
Example 4: Equation of Circle
16:57
Ellipses

46m 51s

Intro
0:00
What Are Ellipses?
0:11
Foci
0:23
Properties of Ellipses
1:43
Major Axis, Minor Axis
1:47
Center
1:54
Length of Major Axis and Minor Axis
3:21
Standard Form
5:33
Example: Standard Form of Ellipse
6:09
Vertical Major Axis
9:14
Example: Vertical Major Axis
9:46
Graphing Ellipses
12:51
Complete the Square and Symmetry
13:00
Example: Graphing Ellipse
13:16
Equation with Center at (h, k)
19:57
Horizontal and Vertical
20:14
Difference
20:27
Example: Center at (h, k)
20:55
Example 1: Equation of Ellipse
24:05
Example 2: Equation of Ellipse
27:57
Example 3: Equation of Ellipse
32:32
Example 4: Graph Ellipse
38:27
Hyperbolas

38m 15s

Intro
0:00
What are Hyperbolas?
0:12
Two Branches
0:18
Foci
0:38
Properties
2:00
Transverse Axis and Conjugate Axis
2:06
Vertices
2:46
Length of Transverse Axis
3:14
Distance Between Foci
3:31
Length of Conjugate Axis
3:38
Standard Form
5:45
Vertex Location
6:36
Known Points
6:52
Vertical Transverse Axis
7:26
Vertex Location
7:50
Asymptotes
8:36
Vertex Location
8:56
Rectangle
9:28
Diagonals
10:29
Graphing Hyperbolas
12:58
Example: Hyperbola
13:16
Equation with Center at (h, k)
16:32
Example: Center at (h, k)
17:21
Example 1: Equation of Hyperbola
19:20
Example 2: Equation of Hyperbola
22:48
Example 3: Graph Hyperbola
26:05
Example 4: Equation of Hyperbola
36:29
Conic Sections

18m 43s

Intro
0:00
Conic Sections
0:16
Double Cone Sections
0:24
Standard Form
1:27
General Form
1:37
Identify Conic Sections
2:16
B = 0
2:50
X and Y
3:22
Identify Conic Sections, Cont.
4:46
Parabola
5:17
Circle
5:51
Ellipse
6:31
Hyperbola
7:10
Example 1: Identify Conic Section
8:01
Example 2: Identify Conic Section
11:03
Example 3: Identify Conic Section
11:38
Example 4: Identify Conic Section
14:50
Section 15: Sequences, Series, & Induction
Introduction to Sequences

57m 45s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:06
Definition: Sequence
0:28
Infinite Sequence
2:08
Finite Sequence
2:22
Length
2:58
Formula for the nth Term
3:22
Defining a Sequence Recursively
5:54
Initial Term
7:58
Sequences and Patterns
10:40
First, Identify a Pattern
12:52
How to Get From One Term to the Next
17:38
Tips for Finding Patterns
19:52
More Tips for Finding Patterns
24:14
Even More Tips
26:50
Example 1
30:32
Example 2
34:54
Fibonacci Sequence
34:55
Example 3
38:40
Example 4
45:02
Example 5
49:26
Example 6
51:54
Introduction to Series

40m 27s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:06
Definition: Series
1:20
Why We Need Notation
2:48
Simga Notation (AKA Summation Notation)
4:44
Thing Being Summed
5:42
Index of Summation
6:21
Lower Limit of Summation
7:09
Upper Limit of Summation
7:23
Sigma Notation, Example
7:36
Sigma Notation for Infinite Series
9:08
How to Reindex
10:58
How to Reindex, Expanding
12:56
How to Reindex, Substitution
16:46
Properties of Sums
19:42
Example 1
23:46
Example 2
25:34
Example 3
27:12
Example 4
29:54
Example 5
32:06
Example 6
37:16
Arithmetic Sequences & Series

31m 36s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:05
Definition: Arithmetic Sequence
0:47
Common Difference
1:13
Two Examples
1:19
Form for the nth Term
2:14
Recursive Relation
2:33
Towards an Arithmetic Series Formula
5:12
Creating a General Formula
10:09
General Formula for Arithmetic Series
14:23
Example 1
15:46
Example 2
17:37
Example 3
22:21
Example 4
24:09
Example 5
27:14
Geometric Sequences & Series

39m 27s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:06
Definition
0:48
Form for the nth Term
2:42
Formula for Geometric Series
5:16
Infinite Geometric Series
11:48
Diverges
13:04
Converges
14:48
Formula for Infinite Geometric Series
16:32
Example 1
20:32
Example 2
22:02
Example 3
26:00
Example 4
30:48
Example 5
34:28
Mathematical Induction

49m 53s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:06
Belief Vs. Proof
1:22
A Metaphor for Induction
6:14
The Principle of Mathematical Induction
11:38
Base Case
13:24
Inductive Step
13:30
Inductive Hypothesis
13:52
A Remark on Statements
14:18
Using Mathematical Induction
16:58
Working Example
19:58
Finding Patterns
28:46
Example 1
30:17
Example 2
37:50
Example 3
42:38
The Binomial Theorem

1h 13m 13s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:06
We've Learned That a Binomial Is An Expression That Has Two Terms
0:07
Understanding Binomial Coefficients
1:20
Things We Notice
2:24
What Goes In the Blanks?
5:52
Each Blank is Called a Binomial Coefficient
6:18
The Binomial Theorem
6:38
Example
8:10
The Binomial Theorem, cont.
10:46
We Can Also Write This Expression Compactly Using Sigma Notation
12:06
Proof of the Binomial Theorem
13:22
Proving the Binomial Theorem Is Within Our Reach
13:24
Pascal's Triangle
15:12
Pascal's Triangle, cont.
16:12
Diagonal Addition of Terms
16:24
Zeroth Row
18:04
First Row
18:12
Why Do We Care About Pascal's Triangle?
18:50
Pascal's Triangle, Example
19:26
Example 1
21:26
Example 2
24:34
Example 3
28:34
Example 4
32:28
Example 5
37:12
Time for the Fireworks!
43:38
Proof of the Binomial Theorem
43:44
We'll Prove This By Induction
44:04
Proof (By Induction)
46:36
Proof, Base Case
47:00
Proof, Inductive Step - Notation Discussion
49:22
Induction Step
49:24
Proof, Inductive Step - Setting Up
52:26
Induction Hypothesis
52:34
What We What To Show
52:44
Proof, Inductive Step - Start
54:18
Proof, Inductive Step - Middle
55:38
Expand Sigma Notations
55:48
Proof, Inductive Step - Middle, cont.
58:40
Proof, Inductive Step - Checking In
1:01:08
Let's Check In With Our Original Goal
1:01:12
Want to Show
1:01:18
Lemma - A Mini Theorem
1:02:18
Proof, Inductive Step - Lemma
1:02:52
Proof of Lemma: Let's Investigate the Left Side
1:03:08
Proof, Inductive Step - Nearly There
1:07:54
Proof, Inductive Step - End!
1:09:18
Proof, Inductive Step - End!, cont.
1:11:01
Section 16: Preview of Calculus
Idea of a Limit

40m 22s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:05
Motivating Example
1:26
Fuzzy Notion of a Limit
3:38
Limit is the Vertical Location a Function is Headed Towards
3:44
Limit is What the Function Output is Going to Be
4:15
Limit Notation
4:33
Exploring Limits - 'Ordinary' Function
5:26
Test Out
5:27
Graphing, We See The Answer Is What We Would Expect
5:44
Exploring Limits - Piecewise Function
6:45
If We Modify the Function a Bit
6:49
Exploring Limits - A Visual Conception
10:08
Definition of a Limit
12:07
If f(x) Becomes Arbitrarily Close to Some Number L as x Approaches Some Number c, Then the Limit of f(x) As a Approaches c is L.
12:09
We Are Not Concerned with f(x) at x=c
12:49
We Are Considering x Approaching From All Directions, Not Just One Side
13:10
Limits Do Not Always Exist
15:47
Finding Limits
19:49
Graphs
19:52
Tables
21:48
Precise Methods
24:53
Example 1
26:06
Example 2
27:39
Example 3
30:51
Example 4
33:11
Example 5
37:07
Formal Definition of a Limit

57m 11s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:06
New Greek Letters
2:42
Delta
3:14
Epsilon
3:46
Sometimes Called the Epsilon-Delta Definition of a Limit
3:56
Formal Definition of a Limit
4:22
What does it MEAN!?!?
5:00
The Groundwork
5:38
Set Up the Limit
5:39
The Function is Defined Over Some Portion of the Reals
5:58
The Horizontal Location is the Value the Limit Will Approach
6:28
The Vertical Location L is Where the Limit Goes To
7:00
The Epsilon-Delta Part
7:26
The Hard Part is the Second Part of the Definition
7:30
Second Half of Definition
10:04
Restrictions on the Allowed x Values
10:28
The Epsilon-Delta Part, cont.
13:34
Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson
15:08
The Adventure of the Delta-Epsilon Limit
15:16
Setting
15:18
We Begin By Setting Up the Game As Follows
15:52
The Adventure of the Delta-Epsilon, cont.
17:24
This Game is About Limits
17:46
What If I Try Larger?
19:39
Technically, You Haven't Proven the Limit
20:53
Here is the Method
21:18
What We Should Concern Ourselves With
22:20
Investigate the Left Sides of the Expressions
25:24
We Can Create the Following Inequalities
28:08
Finally…
28:50
Nothing Like a Good Proof to Develop the Appetite
30:42
Example 1
31:02
Example 1, cont.
36:26
Example 2
41:46
Example 2, cont.
47:50
Finding Limits

32m 40s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:08
Method - 'Normal' Functions
2:04
The Easiest Limits to Find
2:06
It Does Not 'Break'
2:18
It Is Not Piecewise
2:26
Method - 'Normal' Functions, Example
3:38
Method - 'Normal' Functions, cont.
4:54
The Functions We're Used to Working With Go Where We Expect Them To Go
5:22
A Limit is About Figuring Out Where a Function is 'Headed'
5:42
Method - Canceling Factors
7:18
One Weird Thing That Often Happens is Dividing By 0
7:26
Method - Canceling Factors, cont.
8:16
Notice That The Two Functions Are Identical With the Exception of x=0
8:20
Method - Canceling Factors, cont.
10:00
Example
10:52
Method - Rationalization
12:04
Rationalizing a Portion of Some Fraction
12:05
Conjugate
12:26
Method - Rationalization, cont.
13:14
Example
13:50
Method - Piecewise
16:28
The Limits of Piecewise Functions
16:30
Example 1
17:42
Example 2
18:44
Example 3
20:20
Example 4
22:24
Example 5
24:24
Example 6
27:12
Continuity & One-Sided Limits

32m 43s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:06
Motivating Example
0:56
Continuity - Idea
2:14
Continuous Function
2:18
All Parts of Function Are Connected
2:28
Function's Graph Can Be Drawn Without Lifting Pencil
2:36
There Are No Breaks or Holes in Graph
2:56
Continuity - Idea, cont.
3:38
We Can Interpret the Break in the Continuity of f(x) as an Issue With the Function 'Jumping'
3:52
Continuity - Definition
5:16
A Break in Continuity is Caused By the Limit Not Matching Up With What the Function Does
5:18
Discontinuous
6:02
Discontinuity
6:10
Continuity and 'Normal' Functions
6:48
Return of the Motivating Example
8:14
One-Sided Limit
8:48
One-Sided Limit - Definition
9:16
Only Considers One Side
9:20
Be Careful to Keep Track of Which Symbol Goes With Which Side
10:06
One-Sided Limit - Example
10:50
There Does Not Necessarily Need to Be a Connection Between Left or Right Side Limits
11:16
Normal Limits and One-Sided Limits
12:08
Limits of Piecewise Functions
14:12
'Breakover' Points
14:22
We Find the Limit of a Piecewise Function By Checking If the Left and Right Side Limits Agree With Each Other
15:34
Example 1
16:40
Example 2
18:54
Example 3
22:00
Example 4
26:36
Limits at Infinity & Limits of Sequences

32m 49s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:06
Definition: Limit of a Function at Infinity
1:44
A Limit at Infinity Works Very Similarly to How a Normal Limit Works
2:38
Evaluating Limits at Infinity
4:08
Rational Functions
4:17
Examples
4:30
For a Rational Function, the Question Boils Down to Comparing the Long Term Growth Rates of the Numerator and Denominator
5:22
There are Three Possibilities
6:36
Evaluating Limits at Infinity, cont.
8:08
Does the Function Grow Without Bound? Will It 'Settle Down' Over Time?
10:06
Two Good Ways to Think About This
10:26
Limit of a Sequence
12:20
What Value Does the Sequence Tend to Do in the Long-Run?
12:41
The Limit of a Sequence is Very Similar to the Limit of a Function at Infinity
12:52
Numerical Evaluation
14:16
Numerically: Plug in Numbers and See What Comes Out
14:24
Example 1
16:42
Example 2
21:00
Example 3
22:08
Example 4
26:14
Example 5
28:10
Example 6
31:06
Instantaneous Slope & Tangents (Derivatives)

51m 13s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:08
The Derivative of a Function Gives Us a Way to Talk About 'How Fast' the Function If Changing
0:16
Instantaneous Slop
0:22
Instantaneous Rate of Change
0:28
Slope
1:24
The Vertical Change Divided by the Horizontal
1:40
Idea of Instantaneous Slope
2:10
What If We Wanted to Apply the Idea of Slope to a Non-Line?
2:14
Tangent to a Circle
3:52
What is the Tangent Line for a Circle?
4:42
Tangent to a Curve
5:20
Towards a Derivative - Average Slope
6:36
Towards a Derivative - Average Slope, cont.
8:20
An Approximation
11:24
Towards a Derivative - General Form
13:18
Towards a Derivative - General Form, cont.
16:46
An h Grows Smaller, Our Slope Approximation Becomes Better
18:44
Towards a Derivative - Limits!
20:04
Towards a Derivative - Limits!, cont.
22:08
We Want to Show the Slope at x=1
22:34
Towards a Derivative - Checking Our Slope
23:12
Definition of the Derivative
23:54
Derivative: A Way to Find the Instantaneous Slope of a Function at Any Point
23:58
Differentiation
24:54
Notation for the Derivative
25:58
The Derivative is a Very Important Idea In Calculus
26:04
The Important Idea
27:34
Why Did We Learn the Formal Definition to Find a Derivative?
28:18
Example 1
30:50
Example 2
36:06
Example 3
40:24
The Power Rule
44:16
Makes It Easier to Find the Derivative of a Function
44:24
Examples
45:04
n Is Any Constant Number
45:46
Example 4
46:26
Area Under a Curve (Integrals)

45m 26s

Intro
0:00
Introduction
0:06
Integral
0:12
Idea of Area Under a Curve
1:18
Approximation by Rectangles
2:12
The Easiest Way to Find Area is With a Rectangle
2:18
Various Methods for Choosing Rectangles
4:30
Rectangle Method - Left-Most Point
5:12
The Left-Most Point
5:16
Rectangle Method - Right-Most Point
5:58
The Right-Most Point
6:00
Rectangle Method - Mid-Point
6:42
Horizontal Mid-Point
6:48
Rectangle Method - Maximum (Upper Sum)
7:34
Maximum Height
7:40
Rectangle Method - Minimum
8:54
Minimum Height
9:02
Evaluating the Area Approximation
10:08
Split the Interval Into n Sub-Intervals
10:30
More Rectangles, Better Approximation
12:14
The More We Us , the Better Our Approximation Becomes
12:16
Our Approximation Becomes More Accurate as the Number of Rectangles n Goes Off to Infinity
12:44
Finding Area with a Limit
13:08
If This Limit Exists, It Is Called the Integral From a to b
14:08
The Process of Finding Integrals is Called Integration
14:22
The Big Reveal
14:40
The Integral is Based on the Antiderivative
14:46
The Big Reveal - Wait, Why?
16:28
The Rate of Change for the Area is Based on the Height of the Function
16:50
Height is the Derivative of Area, So Area is Based on the Antiderivative of Height
17:50
Example 1
19:06
Example 2
22:48
Example 3
29:06
Example 3, cont.
35:14
Example 4
40:14
Section 17: Appendix: Graphing Calculators
Buying a Graphing Calculator

10m 41s

Intro
0:00
Should You Buy?
0:06
Should I Get a Graphing Utility?
0:20
Free Graphing Utilities - Web Based
0:38
Personal Favorite: Desmos
0:58
Free Graphing Utilities - Offline Programs
1:18
GeoGebra
1:31
Microsoft Mathematics
1:50
Grapher
2:18
Other Graphing Utilities - Tablet/Phone
2:48
Should You Buy a Graphing Calculator?
3:22
The Only Real Downside
4:10
Deciding on Buying
4:20
If You Plan on Continuing in Math and/or Science
4:26
If Money is Not Particularly Tight for You
4:32
If You Don't Plan to Continue in Math and Science
5:02
If You Do Plan to Continue and Money Is Tight
5:28
Which to Buy
5:44
Which Graphing Calculator is Best?
5:46
Too Many Factors
5:54
Do Your Research
6:12
The Old Standby
7:10
TI-83 (Plus)
7:16
TI-84 (Plus)
7:18
Tips for Purchasing
9:17
Buy Online
9:19
Buy Used
9:35
Ask Around
10:09
Graphing Calculator Basics

10m 51s

Intro
0:00
Read the Manual
0:06
Skim It
0:20
Play Around and Experiment
0:34
Syntax
0:40
Definition of Syntax in English and Math
0:46
Pay Careful Attention to Your Syntax When Working With a Calculator
2:08
Make Sure You Use Parentheses to Indicate the Proper Order of Operations
2:16
Think About the Results
3:54
Settings
4:58
You'll Almost Never Need to Change the Settings on Your Calculator
5:00
Tell Calculator In Settings Whether the Angles Are In Radians or Degrees
5:26
Graphing Mode
6:32
Error Messages
7:10
Don't Panic
7:11
Internet Search
7:32
So Many Things
8:14
More Powerful Than You Realize
8:18
Other Things Your Graphing Calculator Can Do
8:24
Playing Around
9:16
Graphing Functions, Window Settings, & Table of Values

10m 38s

Intro
0:00
Graphing Functions
0:18
Graphing Calculator Expects the Variable to Be x
0:28
Syntax
0:58
The Syntax We Choose Will Affect How the Function Graphs
1:00
Use Parentheses
1:26
The Viewing Window
2:00
One of the Most Important Ideas When Graphing Is To Think About The Viewing Window
2:01
For Example
2:30
The Viewing Window, cont.
2:36
Window Settings
3:24
Manually Choose Window Settings
4:20
x Min
4:40
x Max
4:42
y Min
4:44
y Max
4:46
Changing the x Scale or y Scale
5:08
Window Settings, cont.
5:44
Table of Values
7:38
Allows You to Quickly Churn Out Values for Various Inputs
7:42
For example
7:44
Changing the Independent Variable From 'Automatic' to 'Ask'
8:50
Finding Points of Interest

9m 45s

Intro
0:00
Points of Interest
0:06
Interesting Points on the Graph
0:11
Roots/Zeros (Zero)
0:18
Relative Minimums (Min)
0:26
Relative Maximums (Max)
0:32
Intersections (Intersection)
0:38
Finding Points of Interest - Process
1:48
Graph the Function
1:49
Adjust Viewing Window
2:12
Choose Point of Interest Type
2:54
Identify Where Search Should Occur
3:04
Give a Guess
3:36
Get Result
4:06
Advanced Technique: Arbitrary Solving
5:10
Find Out What Input Value Causes a Certain Output
5:12
For Example
5:24
Advanced Technique: Calculus
7:18
Derivative
7:22
Integral
7:30
But How Do You Show Work?
8:20
Parametric & Polar Graphs

7m 8s

Intro
0:00
Change Graph Type
0:08
Located in General 'Settings'
0:16
Graphing in Parametric
1:06
Set Up Both Horizontal Function and Vertical Function
1:08
For Example
2:04
Graphing in Polar
4:00
For Example
4:28
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Lecture Comments (24)

0 answers

Post by Vinodrana on January 18, 2021

This was real helpful

0 answers

Post by Hong Yang on September 24, 2020

I think for question 3 the real answer was 5^ 2 because how is y that small if x was 1000?

0 answers

Post by Hong Yang on September 24, 2020

If x was 7 i example 2 then how was y 6

1 answer

Last reply by: Leonardo Luo
Thu Feb 18, 2021 2:03 PM

Post by Chessdongdong on March 19, 2020

Name that starts with Q: Quia

0 answers

Post by Chessdongdong on March 19, 2020

For the metaphor section, 100 km north of San Jose is approximately San Francisco.

0 answers

Post by Li Zeng on April 14, 2019

Your video was cut off. The last minute and a half are cut off.
I guess the domain is that p is 0 or more.

You can't have a negative length.

0 answers

Post by Macy Li on July 26, 2017

There we go! It's so much better when you go quicker, in my opinion. Thanks!

1 answer

Last reply by: Professor Selhorst-Jones
Sun May 24, 2015 11:38 PM

Post by Lauren Hilton on May 24, 2015

you go way too fast! slow down please.

0 answers

Post by Christopher Barnes on August 27, 2014

A name starting with Q... Quinn

3 answers

Last reply by: Linda Volti
Thu Mar 13, 2014 1:43 PM

Post by Linda Volti on February 23, 2014

I just have a couple of questions.

(1) Is

f(x) = Square root of x

NOT a function since a function can't have two outcomes for an input value?

(2) Right at the end of the lecture you say that because P is a perimeter, it doesn't make sense for it to be negative or zero. On the slide you write (0, infinity sign), but doesn't that mean zero IS included? I thought you would have to write something like (>0, infinity sign).

Great lecture again. I'm learning so much from you!

PS: How about Quentin or Quincy :-)

1 answer

Last reply by: Mirza Baig
Sat Nov 23, 2013 7:16 PM

Post by Mirza Baig on November 23, 2013

I think the domain is X< equal to -3   *Example 4*

2 answers

Last reply by: Min Kirax
Tue Nov 19, 2013 12:03 PM

Post by Min Kirax on November 15, 2013

In Example 4, if we put in a negative value of x. we can get a complex number, right? So, complex numbers are not allowed?

0 answers

Post by Tami Cummins on August 10, 2013

I mean a side of the square.

2 answers

Last reply by: Tami Cummins
Sun Aug 11, 2013 5:09 PM

Post by Tami Cummins on August 10, 2013

Could your function be f(s)= 4(s)* s/4. When you plug in a side for area you get area of the square?

Idea of a Function

  • A function is a relation between two sets: a first set and a second set. For each element from the first set, the function assigns precisely one element in the second set.
  • Just like variables, it is useful to name functions with a symbol. Most often we will use f, but sometimes we'll use g, h, or whatever else makes sense.
  • If we want to talk about what f assigns to some input x, we show this with f(x). The first symbol is the "name" of the function, and the second symbol in parentheses is what the function is acting on.
  • There are many metaphors we can use to help us make sense of how a function works:
    • Transformation: The function transforms elements from one set into another. From problem to problem, the "rules" for transformation will (usually) change as we use different functions. However, as long as we're using the same function, the rules never change: if we put in the same x, we will always get the same f(x) as our result.
    • Map: The function is a "map"-it tells us how to get from one set to another set. Of course, if we start at a different place, we might end up at a different destination. However, the map itself never changes: if we start at the same place, we always arrive at the same destination.
    • Machine: The function is a machine that "eats" inputs and then produces outputs. What it produces depends on what it eats, but the machine is reliable: if it eats the same thing, it always produces the same output.
  • A very important idea is that, given the same input, a function will always produce the same output. If f(5) = 17 the first time, but then f(5) = 27 the second time, it is NOT a function. [However, there would be no problem with g(17) = 5 and g(27) = 5.]
  • In math, most of the functions we'll work with (at least for the next few years) will take in real numbers and produce real numbers (ℝ→ ℝ).
  • When we are given a function, we will usually be told what its "rule" is: how it maps inputs to outputs. For example, if f(x) = 7x − 5, its rule is, "Multiply 7 and x together, then subtract by 5." [It's important to notice how x acts as a placeholder: it tells us what happens to whatever the function acts upon.]
  • If we want to evaluate a function at a specific value, we just apply the "rule" to whatever our input value is. In practice, this turns out to be pretty simple: usually we are given a formula for each function, so we just follow the method of substitution. Remember to wrap your substitution in parentheses, though! If you don't, you could make a mistake on a complex input.
    f(x) = 7x − 5    ⇒     f(a−3) = 7(a−3) − 5
  • A good way to see the behavior of a function is by creating a table of values. On one side we have input values, while the other side shows us what the function outputs when given that input. Sometimes we'll be given the table, while other times we will have to decide what inputs to use and determine the outputs ourselves.
  • The domain is the set of all inputs that the function can accept. While we generally assume that all of ℝ can be used as inputs, sometimes certain values will "break" our function: the output cannot be defined. Thus, our domain is all of ℝ except that which breaks our function. [For now, we mostly have to watch out for dividing by zero and taking square roots of negative numbers. Later in the course we'll also have to be careful about inverse trigonometric functions and logarithms.]
  • The range is the set of all possible outputs a function can assign (given some domain). While these values will always be in ℝ (unless otherwise noted), they do not necessarily cover all of ℝ.

Idea of a Function

Lecture Slides are screen-captured images of important points in the lecture. Students can download and print out these lecture slide images to do practice problems as well as take notes while watching the lecture.

  • Intro 0:00
  • Introduction 0:04
  • What is a Function? 1:06
  • A Visual Example and Non-Example 1:30
  • Function Notation 3:47
    • f(x)
    • Express What Sets the Function Acts On
  • Metaphors for a Function 6:17
    • Transformation
    • Map
    • Machine
  • Same Input Always Gives Same Output 10:01
    • If We Put the Same Input Into a Function, It Will Always Produce the Same Output
    • Example of Something That is Not a Function
  • A Non-Numerical Example 12:10
  • The Functions We Will Use 15:05
    • Unless Told Otherwise, We Will Assume Every Function Takes in Real Numbers and Outputs Real Numbers
    • Usually Told the Rule of a Given Function
  • How To Use a Function 16:18
    • Apply the Rule to Whatever Our Input Value Is
    • Make Sure to Wrap Your Substitutions in Parentheses
  • Functions and Tables 17:36
    • Table of Values, Sometimes Called a T-Table
    • Example
  • Domain: What Goes In 18:55
    • The Domain is the Set of all Inputs That the Function Can Accept
    • Example
  • Range: What Comes Out 21:27
    • The Range is the Set of All Possible Outputs a Function Can Assign
    • Example
    • Another Example Would Be Our Initial Function From Earlier in This Lesson
  • Example 1 23:45
  • Example 2 25:22
  • Example 3 27:27
  • Example 4 29:23
  • Example 5 33:33

Transcription: Idea of a Function

Hi--welcome back to Educator.com.0000

Today, we are going to talk about the idea of a function.0002

Functions are extremely important to mathematics: you have certainly encountered them before.0006

But you might not have fully understood how they work and what they are doing.0011

This lesson is here to give us a clear understanding of what it means for something to be a function, and how functions work.0015

Since functions are so important, they are going to come up in every single lesson you learn about in this course.0021

And they are going to come up in every single concept you talk about in calculus.0026

And they are going to keep coming up, as long as you are studying math.0028

Make sure you watch this entire lesson; it is so important to have a good, grounded, fundamental concept of what a function is,0031

because it is going to keep getting used in everything that we talk about.0038

This is probably the single most important lesson of this entire course,0042

because so many later ideas are going to talk about functions.0045

Also, it would help to have watched the previous lesson on sets, elements, and numbers,0049

because we are going to be talking about how sets are connected to functions.0054

So if you haven't done that, I would recommend that you go and watch that one first,0057

because it will help explain a lot of what we are talking about here, because functions are relying on the idea of sets.0060

All right, let's jump into it: what is a function?0065

A function is a relation between two sets: a first set and a second set.0069

For each element from the first set, the function assigns precisely one element in the second set.0074

So, we will point at some element in the first set, and it will say, "Here is an element from the second set."0080

Point at another element from the first set, and it will tell us, "Here is some element from the second set."0085

That is the idea of a function; here is a visual example for it.0089

We could have something where all of the squares are the first kind--it is our first set--and all of the round things on this side are our second set.0092

So, second would be the second column, and first set would be the first column.0101

We could have news get put onto paper; we say that news, the function, gives us paper.0106

We say that cheese, the function, gives us burger; we say that good, the function, gives us bye.0112

We say that sand, the function, gives us paper; we say that bubble, the function, gives us gum.0118

So, there are only five elements in our first set, and only four elements in our second set.0123

But this is a perfectly reasonable function: newspaper, cheeseburger, goodbye, sandpaper, bubblegum.0127

The only one you might be wondering about is..."Wait, news goes to paper and sand goes to paper."0134

There is no problem with that: we only said that the function has to give us something when we point at something in the first one.0138

We never said that it has to be a different thing, every single thing that we point to; it just has to give us something for it.0144

That is what we have here: we have something where everything that we call out on the first side...0150

we call out news, and in turn, it responds by telling us paper.0154

We call out good, and in return, it says bye; that is how it is working here with this function.0159

Here is a non-example: in this one, we say tree, but the function gives us four different possibilities.0167

Sometimes it gives out maple; but other times it gives out oak; but other times it gives out apple; but other times it gives out pine.0174

And then fruit--if we go to fruit, it sometimes gives out apple, and sometimes it gives out grape.0182

This isn't allowed, because it is only allowed to give one response to a given input.0188

We tell it one element from our first set; it can only tell us one element from the second set.0195

It is not allowed to give us a whole bunch of different choices to pick and choose from.0200

Sometimes it is going to be maple; sometimes it is going to be oak; sometimes it is going to be pine.0204

No; it has to be one thing, and one thing only.0207

That is what it requires to be a function; so this is not an example--this is not allowed, because we can't have it be multiple things coming out of this.0210

It has to only be that one input will only give us one output.0219

And as long as we keep putting in that same input, it can only give us the same output.0223

Just like variables, it is useful to name functions with a symbol; so let's talk about how notation works here.0228

Most often, the symbol we will use to talk about a function is f; but sometimes0233

we are also going to use g, h, or whatever else will make sense, depending on the context.0237

But often, we are going to end up seeing f.0242

If we want to talk about what f assigns to some input x, if x is the element in our first set,0245

if that is what we call the element in our first set that we use f on, then it will be assigned to "f of x,"0250

f acting on x--what f gives out when given x; so the first symbol is the name of the function that we are using;0257

then, the second symbol, in parentheses, is what the function is acting on.0267

So, f--the name of our function--is acting on x; and then, that whole thing together is f(x); f(x) is the name of what comes out of it.0276

So, f is the name of what is doing the acting; x (or whatever is in the parentheses)...the first symbol was the name0286

of whatever is doing the acting; the thing inside of the parentheses is the name of what is being acted on;0292

and then, the whole thing taken together is where we are when we use the function on that element--0298

what we get output to where we come to.0304

Now, there could be a little bit of confusion about f(x), because it is f, parenthesis, x.0307

And we know that parentheses...if I wrote 2(3), that would mean 2 times 3, right?0312

So, we might think f times x; but we are going to know from context that f is a function, and not something that we multiply.0319

So, when f is a function, we don't have to worry about using multiplication, if it is f on some element.0325

It is always going to be f of that element, never f times, unless we are talking about that explicitly.0330

But if it is just in parentheses, it is not going to be multiplication.0336

So, when you see parentheses, and it is a function, it isn't implying multiplication, like when we are dealing with numbers.0339

If we want to express what sets the function acts on, we can write f:a→b.0346

What this is: it is "f goes from a to b"; it takes elements from a, our first set; and then it assigns them elements from b.0353

Normally, it won't be necessary for us in this course (and probably for the next couple of years)--0363

it won't be necessary to name the sets that our function is working on.0366

But why that is, we will discuss later: it is going to be pretty simple, but we will discuss it later when we get to it.0371

There are a lot of metaphors that we can use to help us understand what is going on in a function.0377

Here are three metaphors to help us understand what happens when f takes things from a and goes to b.0382

Our first idea is transformation: the function transforms elements from one set into another.0388

It takes an element x, contained in a, and then it transforms it into an element in b, which we call f(x), or f acting on x.0394

f(x) is what it has been transformed into; that is what it is after the transformation.0406

Now, from problem to problem, the rules for transformation will usually change as we use different functions.0411

One function is generally going to have a different set of rules for how its function works than another function.0416

But if we are using the same function--if we are in the same problem, using the same function--0421

the rules never change: if we put in the same x, we will always get the same f(x) as our result.0425

The rules for how the transformation works are always the same.0431

So, if the same thing goes in, the same thing always comes out.0434

Another way we can look at it is a map: it tells us how to get from one set to another set.0438

It is sort of a guide, directions for how to get from one place to another place.0443

Of course, if we start at a different starting location, a different starting place,0449

different elements in a, we might end up at a different destination--different elements in b.0453

If I say, "Go 100 kilometers north," you are going to end up in totally different places0458

if you start in Mexico, if you start in California, if you start in England, if you start in South Africa, or if you start in Japan.0462

Each one of these places...if you start in Egypt...is going to end up going to a totally different place, even though they are all still the same direction.0469

You are still doing the same thing; you are still going 100 kilometers north in all of these cases.0476

But because you started in a different place, you end up in a different place.0481

So, a different starting place, a different element that we are acting on, a different element that we are mapping,0484

will normally cause us to have a different destination--a different place that we land on.0489

The math itself, though, never changes: if we start at the same place, we always arrive at the same destination.0495

So, if we start in San Jose, California, and then we go 100 kilometers to the north...I actually have no idea where that is.0501

But we will be 100 kilometers north of San Jose.0508

And then, if we start in San Jose again on another day, and we go 100 kilometers north, we are going to end up being in the exact same place.0510

And if we go to San Jose, and then we go 100 kilometers north again, we are going to end up being in the exact same place.0516

And people are probably going to wonder, "Why does this person keep showing up here?"0521

And that is because we are following the same map.0525

The directions, the transformation that the map gives us, the way we go, isn't going to change each time.0527

It only changes when we start from a new place.0533

Finally, one last way to visualize it is the idea of a machine.0537

We can visualize a function as a machine that eats elements from a, and it produces elements from b.0541

What it produces depends on what it eats, but the machine is reliable: if it eats the same thing, it always produces the same output.0547

For example, if we have x right here, and we push it into our machine, f, it goes into the machine;0553

then the machine works on it and crunches it, crunches it, crunches it; and it gives out f(x).0559

So, we are going from the set a to the set b.0564

Now, one thing about the machine is that it is perfectly reliable; the machine is reliable.0572

If it eats the same thing, it produces the same output.0577

If we put in x, it will always give out f(x); so the first time we put in x, it gives out f(x); the second time, f(x); the third time, f(x); the fiftieth time, f(x).0581

Just like when we started in San Jose, and we went 100 kilometers north, each time we always ended up coming to the same place;0590

you put the same thing into the machine; the same thing comes out.0595

This idea is so important; we are going to talk about it really explicitly.0599

We have said this one way or another for all of our different ways of thinking about functions.0602

But it is so important--it is such an important characteristic of functions--we want to make sure that we know it.0606

If we put the same input into a function, it will always produce the same output.0611

Now, the input and the output could be totally different; the input is not necessarily going to be where we show up in the output.0616

You start in San Jose, and then you show up in some farmer's field 100 kilometers to the north.0622

But you are going to come out to that same farmer's field each time, because you are showing up at the same location.0626

So, for a function to make sense and be well-defined, for it to work, its rules must never change.0633

For example, if f(2), f acting on 2, gives out 7; if f(2) equals 7 the first time, then f(2) = 7 the second time; and f(2) = 7 every time.0639

No matter how many times f operates on 2, no matter what, it is always going to give out the same thing.0650

That is what it means to be a function: your rules don't change when you are going on the same thing.0654

You work on one element the same way each time; you always map it; you always transform it; you always assign it to the same place.0660

Here is something that is not a function: g(cat) = fur, g(cat) = whiskers, g(cat) = quiet.0671

This can't be a function, because we have three totally different destinations when we plug in cat.0678

And what determines whether we go to fur, whiskers, or quiet?0683

There is no reason why we should use one set of rules or another set of rules, so it is not a function.0686

There is no reliability here; we don't know, when we plug in cat, if we are going to go to fur, whiskers, or quiet.0690

So, it is not a function; but we could have a function that was h(fur) goes to cat, h(whiskers) goes to cat, h(quiet) goes to cat.0695

It is not that there is a problem with having us land on the same place.0703

No matter what we put in, the function could give out cat: it doesn't matter,0707

as long as the first thing, the first set we are coming from, can't split as it comes out.0712

We can land on the same place, but we can't be coming from the same place and go to two different locations.0719

We always have to follow one rule; because we are following one rule, we can't land on two different things.0725

Let's look at a non-numerical example: before we start telling you about how functions work on numbers,0731

let's consider an example of one that works on something totally not about numbers.0735

Let's think about a function that gives initials: we will define...f is going from names spelled with the Roman alphabet0740

(names like Vincent or John, not things that are spelled with characters that we can't express in the Roman alphabet),0747

and it is going to go to letters from the Roman alphabet.0755

So, f(x) equals the first letter of x; now, if we say, "Wait, we know that the first letter of x is x!"--0759

yes, but what we are talking about is names: x is a placeholder, remember?0768

We talked about variables: the idea of a variable is that it is a placeholder.0773

So, x is just sort of keeping the spot warm, until later, when we put in the name.0777

So, if we decide to put Vincent into the function, then this x on the left side tells us where to put Vincent on the right side.0782

So, Vincent will come in here on the right side, as well.0791

We will have Vincent go on the left, and Vincent will go on the right.0795

f(Vincent) would be V: we cut it off just to the first letter.0799

f(Nicole) would put out N; f(Padma) would give out P; f(Victor) would give out V; f(Takashi) would give out T.0804

Whatever we put in, it will give out just that single letter.0811

So, if we were to turn this into a diagram, we could have Vincent here, Nicole next to Vincent, Padma, Victor, and then finally Takashi.0815

And so, this is where we are coming from; and then, we are going to letters.0832

So, we have V and N and P and T...and let's put in another letter, like...say S and Q.0842

Vincent gets mapped to V; Nicole, by this function, gets mapped; Padma gets mapped to P; Victor also gets mapped to V.0853

Takashi gets mapped to T; but do S and Q get used? Not for this set of names.0863

Maybe if we put in Susan, or we put in...there has to be a name with Q that I don't know...0868

let's pretend that the name is simply Queen...I am sure that there is a name...a really weird spelling of the name Cory?...0876

there is a name out there that is spelled with a Q; I just don't know it immediately.0883

So, there is something out there that can fill up that S, and that can fill up that Q; we just don't have it in what we are looking at so far.0886

So, there might be other things that we are not hitting on the right;0893

but everything that we have on the left is what is getting mapped to things on the right.0896

So, the functions we use...of course, it is no surprise; this is math--we are probably going to be talking about numbers.0901

So, it shouldn't come as a surprise; we are going to concentrate on using these functions with numbers.0907

Functions, as we just saw, can be used for lots of things; but we will focus on functions and the real numbers.0911

Unless we are told otherwise, we will assume that every function takes in real numbers and outputs real numbers.0917

That is to say, f is taking in reals and then giving out reals.0922

OK, so when we are given a function, we will usually be told what its rule is--how it maps inputs to outputs.0927

So, for example, if f(x) = x2 + 3, its rule is "Square the input," since x is our input;0934

then, what we do is...we first square the input, and then we add 3; square the input and then add 3.0941

That is its rule; that is how it works.0946

Notice that x acts as a placeholder; just like it did with the names, it acts as a placeholder.0948

It is not that x is really the thing we are worried about being acted on.0953

It is just telling us what is going to happen to whatever we plug into this function.0956

If we plug in 3, what will happen to 3?0960

If we plug in 50, what will happen to 50?0962

If we plug in smiley-face, what will happen to smiley-face?0964

x is just there to sort of keep a spot warm: it is telling us, "Here is the place; things will go into this place."0967

And things will go into this place, wherever I show up on the right side, as well.0974

If we want to use a function, if we want to evaluate a function at a specific value, we just apply this rule to whatever our input value is.0979

In practice, this turns out to actually be really simple.0986

Usually, we are given a formula for each function; so we just follow the method of substitution.0988

Remember, we take whatever we are substituting in; we wrap it in parentheses; and then we see what we get.0992

For example, our function is f(x) = x2 + 3; then, to find f(7), we just plug in.0997

7 is what we are plugging in; so we have 7 in this spot, and a 7 will go in here.1004

We wrap that in parentheses, just in case; in this case, we don't have to, but we will see why it is useful to always remember to wrap it in parentheses.1009

72 + 3...72 is 49; 49 + 3...we get 52.1016

If we want to look at a slightly more complex example, though, we see why it is so important to wrap your substitutions in parentheses.1021

If we consider a slightly more complex input, like a + 7, then we have to have it in parentheses,1029

because it is not just the a that gets squared; it is not just the 7 that gets squared; it is all of that thing that went in.1034

All of that thing is both the a and the + 7; it is (a + 7); it is that whole number combined.1041

It is not a2 + 7; it is not a + 72; it is (a + 7), the whole thing squared; and then, plus 3.1047

A good way to see the behavior of a function is by creating a table of values; sometimes we call it a T-table, because it has the shape of a T.1057

On one side, we have input values, while the other side shows us what the function outputs when given that input.1065

So normally, the left side will be our input value, and the right side will be our output value.1071

So, for example, if f(x) = x2 + 3, then we can give out a bunch of values for it.1076

So, if we want to figure out what happens to f(-2), we just follow the normal thing.1080

f(-2), so we plug it in...(-2)2 + 3...we get 4 + 3; we get 7, and that 7 shows up here.1086

If we want to figure out what f(-1) is, we do the exact same thing: (-1)2 + 3, 1 + 3, and 4.1095

And that 4 shows up here; and so on, and so forth.1103

We just plug in, based on this rule...whatever the rule we have been given...we plug in whatever our input is,1106

whatever the thing on the left is, any of these numbers.1112

And then, once we figure out what this number is here, we figure out, we evaluate, and we get what its corresponding value is on the right side.1116

And we write that in, and that is how we make a table of values.1122

Having this table is often a very useful way to quickly analyze and see what is happening in a function over a large range of possible inputs.1126

Domain: the domain is the set of all inputs that the function can accept.1135

The domain is what can go into the function: it is the inputs that we are allowed to use.1141

It is what our machine can eat without breaking down.1146

Well, we generally assume that all of ℝ can be used as inputs--all of the real numbers can be used as inputs.1150

Sometimes, certain values will break our function; the output won't be able to be defined.1154

Thus, our domain is normally going to be all of the real numbers, except those numbers that break our function.1160

Occasionally, we might actually get things where we are going to be given an explicit domain--1165

like just evaluate it from -3 to 3--and forget everything beyond those -3 and 3 values.1169

But normally, we are going to assume all of ℝ, except those things that break our function.1175

Let's see an example: if we had f(x) = 1/x, the function would be defined, as long as we don't divide by 0.1179

If we have x = 0, though, then f(0) gets us 1/0.1188

Are we allowed to do that? No--that is very bad; we cannot divide by 0.1196

So, we are not defined there; everything else works, though.1202

If we plug in anything that isn't a 0, it works out fine.1206

So, everything is defined, as long as x is not 0; so our domain is all numbers, except 0.1208

The domain of f, to show all numbers except 0, is everything from -∞ up to 0, not including the 0,1214

and then union with everything from 0, not including the 0, to ∞.1221

That is just another way of expressing all of the real numbers, with the exception of 0.1225

Now, for now, we mostly only have to watch out for dividing by 0 and taking square roots of negative numbers.1230

Those are the only two things we have to worry about breaking functions.1235

However, you can't take the square root of a negative number, because what could you square that would still have a negative with it?1237

Any number, squared, becomes positive; so we can't have the square root of a negative number,1243

because it would be impossible to give me a number that you could square1247

into making it negative--at least as far as the real numbers are concerned.1250

Later on we will talk about the complex; but that is for later.1253

Right now, we only really have to worry about dividing by 0 and taking square roots of negative numbers.1257

Those are the things to watch for; that is where our domain will break down.1261

Later in the course, we will have a little bit more to worry about; we will also have to worry about inverse trigonometric functions.1264

Those are only defined over certain things; and also logarithms have some parts that they are not allowed to take, either.1269

But right now, it is just dividing by 0 and taking square roots of negative numbers.1274

And later on, much later in the course, after we see these ideas, we will have to think about them, as well,1277

when we are thinking about the idea of what can go into a function.1281

Domain is what goes in; range is what comes out.1284

Range is the set of all possible outputs a function can assign, given some domain.1289

With some domain to start with, these values are what is able to come out: the range is what can come out, given some domain.1294

These values will always be in the real numbers, unless we are dealing with a set that isn't working in the reals.1302

But they don't necessarily cover all of the reals.1307

For example, that function we were working with before, f(x) = x2 + 3:1309

the lowest value that f can output is 3, because the smallest number we can make with x2...1313

well, x2 always has to be greater than or equal to 0, because there is no number1319

that we can plug into x and square that will cause it to become negative.1323

The lowest we can get that down to is a 0, so the lowest we can make this whole thing is when this is a 0, plus 3; so the lowest possible output is 3.1327

We can produce any value above 3 with x2, though, so we can just keep going up and up.1335

So, our range would be everything from 3, including 3, up until infinity.1340

So, it is all of the reals from 3, including 3, and higher; great.1344

If we want to look at an example that doesn't use numbers, we could talk about that initial function,1349

that function that ate names and gave out first initials, from earlier in this lesson.1353

In that case, if the domain is all names, then the range is all 26 letters of the Roman alphabet,1357

even though I still can't think of any names that start with a Q...Queen...let's say Queen counts.1362

OK, Queen Latifah, right?--it has to count; then, we can have that be the range--26 letters for the Roman alphabet.1372

So, because if we are looking at all the names that could possibly exist...1379

well, there is Albert; there is Bill; there is Charles; there is Doug; there is Elizabeth...and so on, and so on, and so forth.1383

So, there is always something that will put that out.1391

But if we restricted the domain to the five names that we saw earlier, Vincent, Nicole, Padma, Victor, and Takashi,1394

then we only had four letters show up--we just had N, P, T, and V show up.1400

So, in that case, if we restricted our domain to a smaller thing, our range would also shrink.1405

So, the range depends on what our domain is.1410

If we are looking at...normally we look at everything that can go into the function, and that is normally how we think of the domain.1412

So, the range is everything that could come out.1418

But sometimes, we will be given a more restricted domain, and we have to think in terms of that more restricted domain.1420

All right, we are ready for some examples.1425

First, there are nice, easy ones to get us warmed up to this idea of plugging in.1427

If f(x) = 3x - 7, what is f(2)?1430

We just plug in...if we use red for this...f(2)...we plug in 3; plug in that 2; minus 7...3 times 2 equals 6; 6 minus 7...so we get -1.1434

Let's use blue for this one: if we have f(-4), then 3...we plug in that -4, minus 7.1447

3 times -4 is -12; minus 7...we get -19.1455

Oh, no! What if we have to use something that is variable? No problem.1460

We still just follow the exact same rules: f(a)...well, what happened to x?1465

It became 3x - 7, so now it is going to become 3a - 7, so we get 3a - 7.1470

And what if we want to do b + 8? The same thing--f(b + 8) = 3(b + 8) - 7.1479

So, we have to distribute; and notice how important it was that we put it in parentheses.1490

If we had just plugged in this 3b + 8, that would be totally different than 3(b + 8).1495

And that is what it really has to be, because it is everything in here that got plugged in, not just the b.1501

The b and the 8 don't get to be separated now; they have to go in together.1506

So, 3(b + 8) - 7...we would get 3b + 24 - 7, which is equal to 3b + 17.1509

The next one: what if we wanted to fill in a table, g(z) = z2 - 2z + 3?1522

If we had to fill in this table, then we could do g(-1), (-1)2 - 2(-1) + 3,1527

equals 1 (-1 times -1 is 1), minus 2(-1), so plus 2, plus 3, equals 6; so we get 6 here.1539

Next, g(0): 02 - 2(0) + 3...that simplifies to just 3, because of the 0's; they disappear.1551

If we want to plug in g(1), then we get 12 - 2(1) + 3, so 1 - 2 + 3 comes out to 2.1564

We plug in g(2); we get 22 - 2(2) + 3 = 4 - 4 + 3, which is 3.1581

We plug in 10; we get 102 - 2(10) + 3; 102 is 100, minus 2 times 10 (is 20), plus 3 equals 83.1600

There we go: so you just plug into the function exactly as you would to set up this table.1621

You are told what your input is; and then, over on the right is your output, based on the rules of the function.1625

The function gives us some rules, and so we plug in inputs like -1, and -1 goes through: (-1)2 - 2(-1) + 3; we get 6.1634

And that is what is going on when we are making a table of values.1645

If h(x) = 2x2 + bx + 3, and we know that h(3) = 15, what is b?1649

So in this case, we are looking to figure out what b is.1655

Now, we know that h(3) = 15; so we need to somehow use this to figure out b.1660

So, we think, "I could plug in 3, and I would get something different than just 15."1667

So, h(3), based on the rule, is 2(32)...we are switching for where all of the x's show up;1672

x here; x here; that is it; so 2(32) + b(3) + 3...so we get 2(9) + 3b + 3, which is 18 + 3b + 3, or 3b + 21.1681

Now, at this point, we say, "Right; I also know that h(3) is 15; well, this is still h(3), right?"1707

So now, we put h(3) = 15, and we swap it out, and we get 15 must equal what we know h(3) is.1715

We know that h(3) is equal to 3b + 21; and we also know that h(3) is equal to 15.1725

So, since h(3) is two different things, but it is still just h(3), we know that they must be the same thing; otherwise there is no logic there, right?1730

So, 15 = 3b + 21; we subtract 21 from both sides; we get -6 = 3b; we divide by 3 on both sides, and we get -2 = b.1739

The next one: What is the domain and range of f(x) = 12 - √(x + 3)?1763

Now, remember: domain is what can go in; range is what can come out.1771

What we first one to do is figure out the domain first: what can go in without breaking this function?1794

So, is there anything that can break in this function?1801

We say, "Oh, right, the square root breaks when there is a negative inside."1803

We can't take the square root of -1, because there is no number that you can give me--1812

at least no real number that you can give me--that would square to give us -1.1816

You give me any positive number; it comes up positive; you give me any negative number; it comes out positive.1822

You give me 0; it comes out 0; so there is no number you can give me that will give out a negative number when squared.1825

So, square root breaks when we are trying to put a negative inside of it.1831

So, when will this break? √(x + 3) breaks when we have a negative inside.1835

So, when is (x + 3) going to be negative? when x is less than -3.1842

So, if x is less than -3, if x is more negative than -3, then this will be a negative value inside.1850

If, for example, we use -4, then we will get the square root of -1.1860

If we put in negative fifty billion, then we will get the square root of negative fifty billion plus 3, which would definitely still be negative.1863

So, it only stops being a negative inside when we actually get to -3.1869

-3 is an allowed value, because √(-3 + 3) would be √0; we do know the square root of 0--it is 0.1873

So, the domain works for -3 and higher; everything is still reasonable higher than that.1880

Our domain is going to include -3, and it is going to go for anything higher than that.1888

So, that is our domain; if we want to figure out what the range is, then the question is, "What can f(x) put out?"1895

So, notice: we have 12 - something; that something, √(x + 3)...square root can give out any number.1907

If you put in √0, √1, √4, √9...you are going 0, 1, 2, 3, and you can make any number in between that.1920

12 - something...what is the smallest that something could be?1928

The smallest number that that something could be is 0; so that is smallest when √0 = 0.1932

The biggest number we can get is 12; 12 is the highest number we can get, the largest number we can get out of this function.1946

What is the smallest number we can get? Well, you can just keep giving me larger and larger x1956

to make our square root a bigger and bigger negative number, on the whole.1961

It would be minus larger and larger numbers; so 12 minus larger and larger numbers...we can keep going down.1965

So, any number below 12 can be achieved, because we can just keep having the square root give out slightly larger and slightly larger numbers, which...1971

Since we are subtracting by these larger and larger numbers, we will keep going down.1982

So, any number below 12 can be achieved; so we have our range--it is going to be everything from the lowest possible,1986

all the way, anywhere up from negative infinity, up until 12.1997

Now, we ask ourselves, "Can we actually achieve 12?" Yes, we can.2002

We can actually get to 12, so we include 12; so our range is from negative infinity to 12--there is our answer.2006

The final one: we have a word problem: Give the area of a square, A, as a function of the square's perimeter, p.2013

And then, also say what is the domain of the area as a function of the perimeter.2020

First, as we talked about in the word problems, let's set up what our variables are.2025

Nicely, this problem already gave us our variables; but we will just remind ourselves: A is the area of the square, and p is the perimeter of the square.2030

So, it also probably wouldn't hurt to draw a picture, so we could see what is going on a little more easily.2051

We have a square here; here is our square, and we are talking about the area of it and the perimeter of it.2056

So, that is everything that we don't immediately know: we don't know the area; we don't know the perimeter.2065

They are going to be somehow connected, because we somehow want to be able to make a function out of area,2069

where we plug in the perimeter, and it gives out an area.2073

We basically want an equation that has area on the left, and then things involving perimeter.2076

We are solving for area in terms of perimeter; that is another way of looking at what this function is going to be.2081

We need some way to be able to connect these two ideas: how can we connect the area of a square to its perimeter?2086

Well, maybe we don't see a way right away; but let's just think, "Well, how do you find the area of a square?"2092

Well, it is its side times its side, its side squared; so the area of a square...2099

Now, we might as well go back, and we will set up a new variable--we didn't have that before--side of square.2105

A side of the square is a way to get our area; so area equals side squared.2114

Now, we still want some way to connect the area to the perimeter.2120

So, what we want is...well, we might not be able to correct them directly, but we have area connected to sides.2123

Maybe we can connect perimeter to side...oh, right, yes...if you have forgotten what a perimeter is, what do you do?2129

You just go and look it up: you have access to all sorts of information at your fingertips--it is so easy.2135

If you look up perimeter, thinking, "Oh, I have heard this before; I can't remember what it is,"2140

type it into an Internet search; the next thing you know, you will have a definition for what perimeter is.2144

So, perimeter is all of the sides added together; we have four sides, so perimeter is equal to side + side + side + side--2148

all of the sides of our square, or 4s.2160

So now, we have a way of being able to have area talk to perimeter.2164

Area equals side squared; perimeter equals 4 times side; so perimeter/4 equals side.2168

Now, we can take this, and we can plug it in here.2178

Area equals...since we are plugging and we are substituting, we do it with parentheses...squared.2183

Area equals perimeter squared, over 16 (we have to square the top and the bottom).2190

And there we are--we can think of area equals perimeter squared over 16 as a function,2196

because it only depends on what we plug in for perimeter.2201

Area will vary as we put in different things; so we can think of it as a function acting on perimeter.2205

We plug in the number from perimeter, and it gives out what the area has to be.2210

So, we can just rewrite this as: area is a function of perimeter, or it is equal to the perimeter squared, over 16.2214

It is just a different way of thinking about it: we can think of it as an equation, or we can think of it as a function2223

where it just works the exact same way that the equation worked.2229

There is no functional difference between area of perimeter equals perimeter squared over 16--2233

the area based on a function using our perimeter equals p2/16--compared to area equals p2/16.2238

They have the same effect; it is just two slightly different ways of talking about it.2245

But in either case, it is plugging in a number for perimeter, then figuring out what the area has to be.2249

That is a function for area as a function of a square's perimeter.2255

Now, how can we get its domain? We talked about, before: the domain is everything that we can plug in without breaking it.2260

Now, that is mostly true; but there is one little thing here.2269

The domain also has to make sense; we can't break the world.2272

We wouldn't break this function...we could plug anything we want into this function.2278

You plug in any real number in for p, and it would make sense; we would get a number out of it.2284

You can plug in 50; you can plug in 0; you could plug in -10; it makes sense--we would get a number out of it.2289

But the domain has to make sense; it doesn't have to just make sense in our function--it has to make sense in how we have thought about the function.2294

How did we think about the function? It is a square, right?2307

It is a real object--it is a thing; we could talk about its shape and how its dimensions are.2311

Would it make sense for it to have a perimeter of a negative? No, because it doesn't make sense for the sides to be negative.2317

Would it make sense for the perimeter to be 0? No, because then it would just be a speck--it wouldn't be a square.2324

There would be no area possible to be contained inside, because we would have no side lengths if we had a perimeter of 0.2329

So, it must be the case that our p, perimeter, is allowed to vary only from 0 up to infinity,2335

because it can't have a domain below 0, and it can't have a domain of 0,2344

because while it doesn't break our function itself, it breaks the idea of what the function means.2348

It is meaningless to talk about plugging in a perimeter that is negative or a perimeter that is 0,2354

because then it is not the perimeter of anything; we don't actually have a shape there.2359

We have to be having our domain make sense, as well.2362

If we just have a function, it can't break the function.2365

But if we have the function in the context of a word problem, it also has to make sense with everything else happening in the word problem.2368

All right, I hope that all made sense, because that just laid an important groundwork.2374

You are going to need to know this for the rest of your time in math.2378

So, it is really great that we got this covered here.2381

Having a really strong understanding of what it means for something to be a function2382

is going to help you out in so many different places in math.2386

It is going to help you with all sorts of things--it is really great that we covered that here.2388

All right, see you at Educator.com later--goodbye!2391

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