Bryan Cardella

Digestive System

Slide Duration:

Table of Contents

Section 1: Anatomy & Physiology

Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

25m 34s

Intro

0:00

Anatomy vs. Physiology

0:06

Anatomy

0:17

Pericardium

0:24

Physiology

0:57

Organization of Matter

1:38

Atoms

1:49

Molecules

2:54

Macromolecules

3:28

Organelles

4:17

Cells

5:01

Tissues

5:58

Organs

7:15

Organ Systems

7:42

Organisms

8:26

Relative Positions

8:41

Anterior vs. Posterior

9:14

Ventral vs. Dorsal is the Same as Anterior vs. Posterior for Human Species

11:03

Superior vs. Inferior

11:52

Examples

12:13

Medial vs. Lateral

12:39

Examples

13:01

Proximal vs. Distal

13:36

Examples

13:53

Superficial Vs. Deep

14:57

Examples

15:17

Body Planes

16:07

Coronal (Frontal) Plane

16:38

Sagittal Plane

17:16

Transverse (Horizontal) Plane

17:52

Abdominopelvic Regions

18:37

4 Quadrants

19:07

Right Upper Quadrant

19:47

Left Upper Quadrant

19:57

Right Lower Quadrant

20:06

Left Lower Quadrant

20:16

9 Regions

21:09

Right Hypochondriac

21:33

Left Hypochondriac

22:20

Epicastric Region

22:39

Lumbar Regions: Right and Left Lumbar

22:59

Umbilical Region

23:32

Hypogastric (Pubic) Region

23:46

Right and Left Inguinal (Iliac) Region

24:10

Tissues

38m 25s

Intro

0:00

Tissue Overview

0:05

Epithelial Tissue

0:27

Connective Tissue

1:04

Muscle Tissue

1:20

Neural Tissue

1:49

Histology

2:01

Epithelial Tissue

2:25

Attached to a 'Basal Lamina'

2:42

Avascular

3:38

Consistently Damaged by Environmental Factors

4:43

Types of Epithelium

5:35

Cell Structure / Shape

5:40

Layers

5:46

Example

5:52

Simple Squamous Epithelium

6:39

Meant for Areas That Need a High Rate of Diffusion / Osmosis

6:50

Locations: Alveolar Walls, Capillary Walls

7:15

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

9:10

Meant for Areas That Deal with a Lot of Friction

9:20

Locations: Epidermis of Skin, Esophagus, Vagina

9:27

Histological Slide of Esophagus / Stomach Connection

10:46

Simple Columnar Epithelium

12:02

Meant for Absorption / Secretion Typically

12:09

Locations: Lining of the Stomach, Intestines

13:08

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

13:29

Meant for Protection

14:07

Locations: Epiglottis, Anus, Urethra

14:14

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

14:46

Meant for Protection / Secretion

16:06

Locations: Lining of the Trachea / Bronchi

16:25

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

16:51

Meant for Mainly Secretion / Absorption

16:56

Locations: Kidney Tubules, Thyroid Gland

17:14

Stratified Cubodial Epithelium

18:18

Meant for Protection, Secretion, Absorption

18:52

Locations: Lining of Sweat Glands

19:04

Transitional Epithelium

19:15

Meant for Stretching and Recoil

19:17

Locations: Urinary Bladder, Uterus

20:36

Glandular Epithelium

20:43

Merocrine

21:19

Apocrine

22:58

Holocrine

24:01

Connective Tissues

25:06

Most Abundant Tissue

25:11

Connect and Bind Together All the Organs

25:20

Connective Tissue Fibers

26:13

Collagen Fibers

26:30

Elastic Fibers

27:55

Reticular Fibers

29:58

Connective Tissue Cells

30:52

Fibroblasts

30:57

Macrophages

31:33

Mast Cells

32:49

Lymphocytes

34:42

Adipocytes

35:03

Melanocytes

36:08

Connective Tissue Examples

36:39

Adipose Tissue

36:50

Tendons and Ligaments

37:23

Blood

38:06

Cartilage

38:30

Bone

38:51

Muscle

39:09

Integumentary System (Skin)

51m 15s

Intro

0:00

Functions of the Skin

0:07

Protection

0:13

Absorption

0:43

Secretion

1:19

Heat Regulation

1:52

Aesthetics

2:21

Major Layers

3:50

Epidermis

3:59

Dermis

4:45

Subcutaneous Layer (Hypodermis)

5:36

The Epidermis

5:56

Most Superficial Layers of Skin

5:57

Epithelial

6:11

Cell Types

7:16

Cell Type: Melanocytes

7:26

Cell Type: Keratinocytes

9:39

Stratum Basale

10:54

Helps Form Finger Prints

11:11

Dermis

11:54

Middle Layers of the Skin

12:16

Blood Flow

12:20

Hair

13:59

Glands

15:41

Sebaceous Glands

15:46

Sweat Glands

16:32

Arrector Pili Muscles

19:18

Two Main Kinds of Hair: Vellus and Terminal

19:57

Nails

21:43

Cutaneous Receptors (Nerve Endings)

23:48

Subcutaneous Layer

25:00

Deepest Part of the Skin

25:01

Composed of Connective Tissue

25:04

Fat Storage

25:11

Blood Flow

25:43

Cuts and Healing

26:33

Step 1: Inflammation

26:54

Step 2: Migration

28:46

Step 3: Proliferation

30:39

Step 4: Maturation

31:50

Burns

32:44

1st Degree

33:50

2nd Degree

34:38

3rd Degree

35:18

4th Degree

36:27

Rule of Nines

36:49

Skin Conditions and Disorders

40:02

Scars

40:06

Moles

41:11

Freckles/ Birthmarks

41:48

Melanoma/ Carcinoma

42:44

Acne

45:23

Warts

47:16

Wrinkles

48:14

Psoriasis

49:12

Eczema/ Rosacea

49:41

Vitiligo

50:19

Skeletal System

19m 30s

Intro

0:00

Functions of Bones

0:04

Support

0:09

Storage

0:24

Production of Blood

1:01

Protection

1:12

Leverage

1:28

Bone Anatomy

1:43

Spongy Bone

2:02

Compact Bone

2:47

Epiphysis / Diaphysis

3:01

Periosteum

3:38

Articular Cartilage

3:59

Lacunae

4:23

Canaliculi

5:07

Matrix

5:53

Osteons

6:21

Central Canal

7:00

Medullary Cavity

7:21

Bone Cell Types

7:39

Osteocytes

7:44

Osteoblasts

8:12

Osteoclasts

8:18

Bone Movement in Relation to Levers

10:11

Fulcrum

10:26

Resistance

10:50

Force

11:01

Factors Affecting Bone Growth

11:24

Nutrition

11:28

Hormones

12:28

Exercise

13:19

Bone Marrow

13:58

Red Marrow

14:04

Yellow Marrow

14:46

Bone Conditions / Disorders

15:06

Fractures

15:09

Osteopenia

17:12

Osteoporosis

17:51

Osteochondrodysplasia

18:22

Rickets

18:43

Axial Skeleton

35m 2s

Intro

0:00

Axial Skeleton

0:05

Skull

0:21

Hyoid

0:25

Vertebral Column

0:29

Thoracic Cage

0:32

Skull

0:35

Cranium

0:42

Sphenoid

0:58

Ethmoid

1:12

Frontal Bone

1:32

Sinuses

1:39

Sutures

2:50

Parietal Bones

3:29

Sutures

3:30

Most Superior / Lateral Cranial Bones

3:50

Fontanelles

4:17

Temporal Bones

5:00

Zygomatic Process

5:14

External Auditory Meatus

5:43

Mastoid Process

6:07

Styloid Process

6:28

Mandibular Fossa

7:04

Carotid Canals

7:50

Occipital Bone

8:12

Foramen Magnum

8:30

Occipital Condyle

9:03

Jugular Foramina

9:35

Sphenoid Bone

10:11

Forms Part of the Inferior Portion of the Cranium

10:39

Connects Cranium to Facial Bones

10:51

Has a Pair of Sinuses

11:06

Sella Turcica

11:26

Optic Canals

12:02

Greater/ Lesser Wings

12:19

Superior View of Cranium Interior

12:33

Ethmoid Bone

13:09

Forms the Superior Portion of Nasal Cavity

13:16

Images Contain the Crista Galli, Nasal Conchae, Perpendicular Plate, and 2 Sinuses

13:54

Maxillae

15:29

Holds the Upper Teeth, Forms the Inferior Portion of the Orbit, and Make Up the Upper Jaw and Hard Palate

15:50

Palatine Bones

16:17

Nasal Cavity Bones

16:55

Nasal Bones

17:07

Vomer

17:43

Interior Nasal Conchae

18:01

Sagittal Cross Section Through the Skull

19:03

More Facial Bones

19:45

Zygomatic Bones

19:57

Lacrimal Bones

20:12

Mandible

20:58

Lower Jaw Bone

20:59

Mandibular Condyles

21:05

Hyoid Bone

21:39

Supports the Larynx

21:47

Does Not Articular with Any Other Bones

22:02

Vertebral Column

22:45

26 Bones

22:49

There Are Cartilage Pads Called 'Intervertebral Discs' Between Each Vertebra

23:00

Vertebral Curvatures

24:55

Cervical

25:00

Thoracic

25:02

Lumbar

25:05

Atlas

25:28

Axis

26:20

Pelvic

28:20

Vertebral Column Side View

28:33

Sacrum/ Coccyx

29:29

Sacrum Has 5 Pieces

30:20

Coccyx Usually Has 4 Pieces

30:43

Thoracic Cage

31:00

12 Pairs of Ribs

31:05

Sternum

31:30

Costal Cartilage

33:22

Appendicular Skeleton

13m 53s

Intro

0:00

Pectoral Girdle

0:05

Clavicles

0:25

Scapulae

1:06

Arms

2:47

Humerus

2:50

Radius

3:56

Ulna

4:11

Carpals

4:57

Metacarpals

5:48

Phalanges

6:09

Pelvic Girdle

7:51

Coxal Bones / Coxae

7:57

Ilium

8:09

Ischium

8:16

Pubis

8:21

Male vs. Female

9:24

Legs

10:05

Femer

10:11

Patella

11:14

Tibia

11:34

Fibula

11:52

Tarsals

12:24

Metatarsals

13:03

Phalanges

13:21

Articulations (Joints)

26m 37s

Intro

0:00

Types of Joints

0:06

Synarthrosis

0:16

Amphiarthrosis

0:44

Synovial (Diarthrosis)

0:54

Kinds of Immovable Joints

1:09

Sutures

1:15

Gomphosis

2:17

Synchondrosis

2:44

Synostosis

4:59

Types of Amphiarthroses

5:31

Syndesmosis

5:36

Symphysis

6:07

Synovial Joint Anatomy

6:49

Articular Cartilage

7:04

Joint Capsule

7:49

Synovial Membrane

8:27

Bursae

8:48

Spongy / Compact Bone

9:28

Periosteum

10:12

Synovial Joint Movements

10:34

Flexion / Extension

10:41

Abduction / Adduction

10:58

Supination / Pronation

11:58

Depression / Elevation

13:10

Retraction / Protraction

13:21

Circumduction

13:35

Synovial Joint Types (By Movement)

13:56

Hinge

14:04

Pivot

14:53

Gliding

15:15

Ellipsoid

15:57

Saddle

16:29

Ball & Socket

17:14

Knee Joint

17:49

Typical Synovial Joint Parts

18:03

Menisci

18:32

ACL Anterior Cruciate

19:50

PCL Posterior Cruciate

20:34

Patellar Ligament

20:56

Joint Disorders / Conditions

21:45

Arthritis

21:48

Bunions

23:26

Bursitis

24:33

Dislocations

25:23

Hyperextension

26:01

Muscular System

53m 7s

Intro

0:00

Functions of Muscles

0:06

Movement

0:09

Maintaining Body Position

1:11

Support of Soft Tissues

1:25

Regulating Entrances / Exits

1:56

Maintaining Body Temperature

2:33

3 Major Types of Muscle Cells (Fibers)

2:58

Skeletal (Striated)

3:21

Smooth

4:11

Cardiac

4:54

Skeletal Muscle Anatomy

5:49

Fascia

6:24

Epimysium

6:47

Fascicles

7:21

Perimysium

7:38

Muscle Fibers

8:04

Endomysium

8:31

Myofibrils

8:49

Sarcomeres

9:20

Skeletal Muscle Anatomy Images

9:32

Sarcomere Structure

12:33

Myosin

12:40

Actin

12:45

Z Line

12:51

A Band

13:11

I Band

13:39

M Line

14:10

Another Depiction of Sarcomere Structure

14:34

Sliding Filament Theory

15:11

Explains How Sarcomeres Contract

15:14

Tropomyosin

15:24

Troponin

16:02

Calcium Binds to Troponin, Causing It to Shift Tropomyosin

17:31

Image Examples

18:35

Myosin Heads Dock and Make a Power Stroke

19:02

Actin Filaments Are Pulled Together

19:49

Myosin Heads Let Go of Actin

19:59

They 'Re-Cock' Back into Position for Another Docking

20:19

Relaxation of Muscles

21:11

Ending Stimulation at the Neuromuscular Junction

21:50

Getting Calcium Ions Back Into the Sarcophasmic Reticulum

23:59

ATP Availability

24:15

Rigor Mortis

24:45

Anatomy & Physiology Digestive System

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Section 1: Anatomy & Physiology: Lecture 19 | 59:28 min

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Lecture Comments (11)

	0 answers Post by shirinrazian99 on December 17, 2022 Hi I have issues playing this! I have just subscribed and I cannot hear you and the video hardly plays.
	1 answer Last reply by: Bryan Cardella Sat May 2, 2015 9:16 AM Post by Hannah Hickerson on May 1, 2015 I'm excited to finish off the semester by watching your lectures and hopefully end strong by acing my Final exams. From what I've seen of you thus far I think these will help me tremendously.
	1 answer Last reply by: Bryan Cardella Wed Feb 25, 2015 4:03 PM Post by Ray Gaytan on February 25, 2015 Well, I will say "thank You." I enjoy your teaching methods. Great Job!!!!!
	1 answer Last reply by: Bryan Cardella Sun May 18, 2014 11:53 AM Post by Tom Hughes on May 17, 2014 What arteries supply the stomach, Pancreas and duodenum?
	1 answer Last reply by: Bryan Cardella Tue Dec 10, 2013 9:50 AM Post by Adriana Riano on December 9, 2013 According to the book by McArdle and Katch/Katch named Exercise Physiology seventh edition page 13 "A well nurished 80 kg man stores 500g of carbohydrates, of this muscle glycogen accounts for the largest reserve". This means that there is more glycogen stored in the muscles than in the liver. In your lecture you say the opposite or the opposite is understood. Can you please clarify this?
	1 answer Last reply by: Bryan Cardella Tue Dec 10, 2013 9:50 AM Post by peter yang on December 9, 2013 your classes are really cool and funny

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Digestive System

Functions of the digestive system include: ingestion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, secretion, absorption, and excretion
The alimentary canal (gastrointestinal tract) contains the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus
The oral cavity (mouth) gets digestion started with the salivary glands (and saliva) along with the tongue and teeth
Deciduous (baby) teeth are shed during childhood and are replaced by 32 adult teeth
The types of teeth: incisors, canines, bicuspids, and molars
Tooth anatomy terms: enamel, dentin, pulp, gums, cementum, bone, nerves, and blood vessels (supplied to the root)
Swallowing a bolus of food involves the tongue, pharyngeal muscles, soft palate, and epiglottis
The esophagus is a muscular tube that moves food from the throat into the stomach
The stomach stores/breaks down food and has 4 major layers of tissue
Stomach anatomy terms: cardia, fundus, body, pylorus, sphincters, rugae, gastric pits, gastric glands, gastric juice (HCl, pepsinogen, pepsin)
The small intestine does a great deal of absorption, has 4 layers of tissue, and has sections called the duodenum, jejunum, and ilium
Intestinal villi and microvilli increase the surface area available for absorption of nutrients
The vermiform appendix is a small vestigial sac in the beginning of the large intestine
The large intestine is made up of the cecum and colon segments (ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid) and its primary function is to reabsorb water and make solid feces
The rectum and anus are involved with the storage and elimination of fecal matter
The liver has many functions: organic compound metabolism, glycogen storage, waste removal, bile production, vitamin storage, breakdown of toxins, and removal of excess amounts of molecules from the blood
The gall bladder stores bile from the liver and sends it through a duct to the duodenum for emulsification of fats
The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum
Digestive conditions/disorders include ulcers, gallstones, hepatitis, and diarrhea
Did you know…

Q: How much fecal matter could the colon possibly store (if the rectum got backed up)?
A: The world’s largest colon on record is found in the Mütter Museum in Philadelphia, PA. The man who had this colon was born without adequate motor nerve networks in his large intestine, so his brain did not stimulate peristalsis to move along the forming fecal matter. By his early twenties, he was so backed up with fecal matter that he became known as “balloon man”. The preserved colon is close to 27 inches wide at its greatest circumference and stretches out to about 8 feet in length. Suffice it to say, he did not have a typical life span.

Digestive System

Lecture Slides are screen-captured images of important points in the lecture. Students can download and print out these lecture slide images to do practice problems as well as take notes while watching the lecture.

Intro

Functions of the Digestive System

Alimentary Canal (GI Tract)

Oral Cavity (Mouth)

Teeth

Swallowing

Esophagus

Stomach #1

Stomach #2

Small Intestine

Vermiform Appendix

Large Intestine

Rectum and Anus

Accessory Organs

Liver

Gall Bladder

Pancreas

Digestive Conditions / Disorders

Intro 0:00
Functions of the Digestive System 0:05

Ingestion
Mechanical Breakdown
Digestion
Secretion
Absorption
Excretion

Alimentary Canal (GI Tract) 1:38

Mouth
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small Intestine
Large Intestine
Rectum
Anus

Oral Cavity (Mouth) 2:53

Salivary Glands
Saliva
Tongue
Teeth
Hard Palate / Soft Palate

Teeth 6:19

Deciduous Teeth
Adult Teeth
Incisors
Cuspids
Bicuspids
Molars

Swallowing 14:06

Tongue
Pharyngeal Muscles
Soft Palate
Epiglottis

Esophagus 16:41

Moves Food Into the Stomach Through 'Peristalsis'
Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscular Layers

Stomach #1 19:58

Food Storage, Mechanical / Chemical Breakdown, and Emptying of Chyme
4 Layers: Mucosa, Submuscoa, Muscular Layers, Serosa
4 Regions: Cardia, Fundus, Body, Pylorus

Stomach #2 24:43

Rugae
Gastric Pits
Gastric Glands
Gastric Juice
Gastrin, Ghrelin

Small Intestine 29:07

Digestion and Absorption
Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum
Peristalsis
Intestinal Villi

Vermiform Appendix 32:53

Vestigial Structure!
Appendicitis / Appendectomy

Large Intestine 36:04

Reabsorption of Water and Formation of Solid Feces
Ascending Colon
Transverse Colon
Descending Colon
Sigmoid Colon

Rectum and Anus 37:48

Rectum
Anus
Hemorrhoids

Accessory Organs 41:13

Liver
Gall Bladder
Pancreas

Liver 41:40

Metabolism
Glycogen Storage
Waste Product Removal
Bile Production
Vitamin Storage
Breakdown of Drugs
Phagocytosis, Antigen Presentation
Synthesis of Plasma Proteins
Removal of Hormones
Removal of Antibodies
Removal of RBCs
Removal / Storage of Toxins

Gall Bladder 48:50

Stores Bile Made by Liver
Common Hepatic Duct
Common Bile Duct Connects to the Duodenum

Pancreas 51:28

Pinkish-Gray Organ
Produces Digestive Enzymes and Buffers

Digestive Conditions / Disorders 52:50

Gastritis
Ulcers
Gallstones
Cholera
Hepatitis
Jaundice
Cirrhosis
Constipation
Diarrhea
Lactose Intolerance
Gingivitis

Anatomy and Physiology Online Course

Section 1: Anatomy & Physiology
	Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology	25:34
	Tissues	38:25
	Integumentary System (Skin)	51:15
	Skeletal System	19:30
	Axial Skeleton	35:02
	Appendicular Skeleton	13:53
	Articulations (Joints)	26:37
	Muscular System	53:07
	Nervous System Part I: Neurons	40:07
	Nervous System Part 2: Brain	1:07:43
	Nervous System Part 3: Spinal Cord & Nerves	32:06
	Vision	58:38
	Hearing	36:57
	Smell, Taste & Touch	36:41
	The Heart	45:20
	Blood Vessels	39:58
	Blood	41:25
	Respiratory System	1:02:59
	Digestive System	59:28
	Metabolism & Nutrition	1:17:02
	Endocrine System	44:37
	Urinary System	35:08
	Lymphatic System	44:23
	Female Reproductive System	47:19
	Male Reproductive System	36:35
	Embryological & Fetal Development	49:15
	Alcohol: Effects & Dangers	27:47

Transcription: Digestive System

Hi and welcome to www.educator.com.0000

This is the lesson on the digestive system.0002

Functions of the digestive system include ingestion, the act of physically putting food into your mouth that is ingesting.0006

Mechanical breakdown starts in the mouth that is with the teeth, with the tongue.0014

When you swallow food your stomach does mechanical digestion that is anytime you are ripping, tearing, crushing food.0020

That is the physical breakdown.0029

Digestion itself if you look at like what causes digestion to occur.0032

Mechanical breakdown does assist with it but on a microscopic level it is the chemical breakdown that can get it done.0037

That is enzymes, acids, all those molecules that physically breakdown macromolecules larger molecules into the tinier ones0045

that you can absorb in the bloodstream and provide body nourishment.0054

Secretion throughout parts of your digestive tract all the way up in the mouth with saliva all the way down to large intestine you are secreting items.0058

Glands are physically releasing substances, fluids, enzymes, other molecules, into digestive tract to assist with the breakdown and movement of this food to their.0070

Absorption is the opposite of secretion.0081

You are physically absorbing those nourishing molecules, those nutrients into your bloodstream so that you can stay alive.0084

Excretion is releasing waste out to the exit.0092

The alimentary canal is a fancy way of saying your digestive tract or your GI tract, gastrointestinal tract.0097

Either of these terms or digestive tract is acceptable.0107

When we look at this tube from the mouth all the way to the end, all of these are connected to each other.0111

Some parts of it are little expanded or twisty turny are really long but all of these are in sequence.0117

Later on I will cover the accessory organs that are off to the side of the tract like the liver and pancreas.0126

It starts with the mouth, you swallow food goes down the pharynx right in here, and then into the esophagus.0132

If it goes down into the larynx and trachea you have a problem and you could be choking or aspirating and that is no good.0141

Once food and liquids go down the esophagus they enter the stomach.0148

From the stomach we go through the small intestine, the longest portion, percentage wise of the GI tract.0153

Then the large intestine which is large in terms of width not length which is right here, most of it is known as the colon.0160

Then you will get into the rectum and anus.0168

Let us start with the oral cavity which is the mouth.0172

The starting of the chemical digestion of food is with the salivary glands.0176

Even just seeing food on television or seeing a picture of food, smelling food, is going to initiate salivation.0183

You have 3 pairs of salivary glands for total of 6.0191

The parotid glands are in this region, in the sides of the cheeks.0196

The sublingual literally means under the tongue.0202

Some people can lift up their tongue and you can see these little holes and they squirt like little hoses.0206

Those are the sublingual under the tongue salivary glands.0213

Sub mandibular which are deeper and associated more with the mandible.0216

There is this mandibular groove that is next to the back of the teeth where these particular salivary glands are rooted.0221

The majority of saliva comes from the sub mandibular glands and the rest of it from the parotid and sublingual.0230

Of course salivary glands release saliva.0237

What is in saliva?0240

The vast majority of it is water but what is the other 0.6%?0241

You are looking at enzymes, antibodies, even white blood cells on occasion.0245

But the enzymes are what we are going to focus on.0253

Salivary amylase is what we will it is one of the main ones that break down larger carbohydrates into tinier ones like glucose and galactose.0257

Those are monosaccharide.0267

Lysozyme is an enzyme that actually helps keep the bacterial populations in your mouth at acceptable levels.0268

Everyone has bacteria in their mouth even using a really good mouthwash you are going to get rid of all of them.0276

It is important to have some bacteria in your mouth that is normal.0283

You do not want them to get out of control.0287

Out of control bacteria is going to lead to infections like gingivitis, tooth decay, periodontal disease, things like that.0289

Lysozyme is an enzyme that helps keep that bacteria population in check.0297

Your tongue has a lot to do with getting the food swallowed and to help break it down.0304

As you chew your tongue is a very strong set of muscles that work together and overtime your tongue is so strong0312

that you can actually end up moving your teeth in the long run if your tongue keeps pushing on them.0321

The teeth have a lot to do with mechanical digestion or the physical breaking down of food products.0327

Teeth are not technically bones.0335

They are structures a bit different than the bones of body.0337

I am going to cover that in the next slide.0340

The hard palate and soft palate.0341

In this particular image, this sagittal cross section straight through here.0344

There is a little bit of germs in this image but on here is the hard palate right here.0349

A lot of it is actually the maxillary bones and the palatine bones.0355

If you go posterior to there you have got the soft palate where that uvula hangs, that thing that looks like a punching bag in the back of your mouth.0363

The soft palate has a lot to do with the swallowing which we are going to get to in a bit.0372

First we are going to start off with the anatomy of teeth.0378

I am going to start by mentioning dentin and I am going to erase this because this image is dentin but you actually see the word dentin much more often.0383

Dentin is a lot of the mass of the tooth and that is not quite on the superficial level like an animal.0402

It is a bit deeper.0410

Dentin is similar to bone but the reason why we would not consider bone is unlike your skeletal bones there are no cells in dentin.0410

If you look at any bone in the body there are cells that help regulate what is going on your bones and help produce additional bone matrix overtime.0421

Dentin does not have cells in it.0431

Superficial to dentin you have what is called the enamel.0433

Enamel is the hardest biological substance in the human body.0437

There is nothing else in your body that is harder than this.0441

That is important for protecting you outside of your tooth.0446

Not just the mechanical wear and tear on teeth but the acidic substances that enter your mouth.0449

If it was not for the enamel you will be getting much more wearing away of these tissues deeper in the tooth.0455

Overtime enamel can wear by eating too much acidic food, chewing on things that are way too hard too often can damage your enamel.0463

I have lost some enamel in my teeth because I tend to grind my teeth in my sleep.0473

I do not that as much as I used to, I wear a mouth guard now but over time that is additional wear and tear that you do not want.0478

Deeper to the dentin is the polp layer.0486

It is where you are going to find the nerves associated with teeth and blood flow into the tooth.0490

As you can see there are tiny little arteries and veins, capillaries associated with each tooth.0496

There are also nerves associated with the polp.0505

Here are the roots of the teeth.0508

Depending on the tooth we are looking at the amounts of roots can vary.0510

Some teeth have only one root.0513

Some have 3 or even 4 roots.0515

Cementum is a structure that helps keep the tooth anchored in the gum or the gingiva is the other term for the gums.0517

If it was not for cementum the chances of losing an adult tooth would drastically increase.0526

Thank you to cementum which is like cementing the tooth in place.0533

Here is the bone of tooth that is anchored in.0537

That bone is either going to be the mandible or the maxillary bones.0539

There are nerves associated with every tooth as well.0544

The crown is what emerges out from the gum of the tooth.0549

When you look at the teeth in a baby vs. teeth in an adult, babies get their deciduous teeth also called milk teeth or baby teeth depending on who you are talking to.0554

Deciduous means falling out like of deciduous trees lose their leaves in the fall.0565

It is the same meaning.0571

Those baby teeth are supposed to fallout.0573

They typically start falling out by the time you are 7 or 8 years old and making keep falling out through high school or higher grades.0575

Even as some adult people still have deciduous teeth.0585

It is not that common but you tend to get around 20 deciduous teeth that can vary slightly depending on the person but 20 is about average.0589

By the time you are an adult and you have lost all your deciduous teeth and you have gained your adult teeth you should have 32.0596

That number can vary as well because I no longer have 32 adult teeth.0604

I actually got some of my teeth removed which I am going to get into a moment.0610

Incisors are the ones that are right at front here.0613

4 incisors and the 2 big ones here and 2 that is right under them.0617

Incisors tend to have one root and they tend to have that structure that is kind of broad and flat.0624

When you bite on something that you are sticking in your mouth, incisors are going to be the first to may contact typically.0632

Cuspids also known as canine teeth, you have a total of 4 of them.0639

If you count top and bottom, they are right on the sides of the incisors.0647

My canines are not as sharp as they used to be because like I told about grinding my teeth that literally wore away the sharpness of my canines.0652

Some people’s canines are sharper than others.0661

These also attend to have one root.0663

Bicuspids is a little further not quite to the molars but bicuspids have 2 cusps meaning0666

when you look at the surface of them it looks like they have 2 points instead of 1 point like a canine.0674

Bicuspids can have that kind of a double root like this.0680

Molars, all the way in the back on the top and bottom, the molars those can have numerous points.0685

They tend to be broader, more from grinding of plant material.0694

If you compare different animals in the animal kingdom, animal like a giraffe which eats plant material totally,0699

you are going to see teeth in its jaw that resemble our molars.0707

But they are going to be a whole surface.0711

In the very front of a giraffes mouth you will have teeth that resemble the front of ours but the majority of teeth are meant for grinding that plant material.0714

When you look at something like a canine, a dog, it is no coincidence that they are called that because they have much more sharp teeth for tearing flesh0725

because they tend to hunt and kill live animals.0734

We are meant to be omnivores meaning eating animal materials and plant materials instead of one of the other.0738

That is why we have that variety as humans.0748

We have some sharp teeth and some flatter, broader teeth for both kinds of foods.0750

When I said I do not have 32 teeth any more, I got all four of my wisdom teeth removed and that is a term for teeth in the back.0757

Some people do not get all 4.0768

Some people who are born with less it is just a genetic factor or maybe having something to do with the development of the womb.0771

My wisdom teeth as they were coming in when I was in the early high school I was about 15 they were impacted.0778

Meaning as my wisdom teeth are coming in the last of my adult teeth they were pushing against the other teeth.0789

Let us say this is a molar that was not quite in the back.0796

And here is the gum line and there will be another tooth over here.0803

But the back part, the more posterior portion part of my jaw has a tooth that wanted to grow in this way like I was pushing on my molars.0810

The dentist said that if we let this continue its path overtime they are going to keep pushing on those molars that are close to the front0824

and can cause a lot of pain and discomfort and can actually disrupt the placement of your teeth.0832

They went in and remove all 4.0838

I actually have 28 adult teeth instead of 32.0841

When it comes to swallowing there are four main contributors to the action of getting food that you have been chewing up0845

and salivating on back into your pharynx and esophagus.0853

The tongue is the major contributor.0858

If you look at what happens in the sequence in the sagittal depiction you can see that this is the tongue here.0861

The tongue as you swallow it tends to brush up on the palate, most of the hard palette and push backwards.0868

Swallow right now and see what your tongue is doing.0876

I just felt to do that.0880

It just kind of brushed back and it makes this action that physically pushes that bunch of food that you have been eating0882

or the liquids that you put in your mouth back down your pharynx.0889

The pharyngeal muscles as you swallow you can feel that there are muscles located in here that also tend to move parts like the soft palate and the epiglottis.0893

The soft palate is right back here and you can see that it does move as you push bowls of foods backwards.0905

The soft palate kicks up to provide that clump of food that is why it is called bolus to move back.0912

The epiglottis also makes an action every time you swallow you can feel your larynx arch up and back.0921

The epiglottis or this little flap right here closes on top of the glottis.0929

You can see that here.0934

If it was not for this epiglottis closing this food bolus could potentially go through the glottis and into the larynx and trachea.0936

That would be no good.0943

You want to go through that posterior passageway, the esophagus, down to the stomach.0944

Speaking of the esophagus right here they label upper esophageal sphincter that is the muscular doorway to the top of the esophagus.0951

In British English there is an O in front of the esophagus.0959

In American English there is not.0964

One of the main differences between those two forms of English but this is the step by step process of what happens when you swallow a chunk of food.0966

You notice that once the food has done pass the glottis, once that swallowing action is over the epiglottis0975

will come back up allowing you to breathe adequately in and out until you swallow again.0984

The amount time it takes for food to get all the way the esophagus and the stomach is about 9 seconds.0990

It depends but that is average.0996

When we look at the esophagus, the esophagus here is a hollow muscular tube approximately 25cm long and at its widest portion about 2 cm wide.0999

Moves food into the stomach through peristalsis.1012

Peristalsis in general is a wavelike muscular contraction.1017

Any tube that has a muscular lining that needs to move something through in your body it is usually not conscious voluntary control.1022

It is an unconscious thing involuntary that moves food through or in other cases we look at the internal female anatomy1032

peristalsis happens in the fallopian tubes to help move an egg through meet sperm.1041

In this case we are talking about moving food from after the swallowing action down to the stomach.1048

Once you swallow your voluntary control is done.1055

I cannot physically move it fast down my esophagus or physically move into my stomach more quickly.1058

It just happens naturally.1066

That action is called peristalsis and they are these wavelike muscular contractions that move food down.1068

No absorption happens in the esophagus.1075

Yes items are secreted, there are lubricating secretions into the lumen but the space in the esophagus to help ease food down but you do not do absorption of nutrients here.1077

The first place that happens is actually in stomach and then further down.1091

The major layers in general when we look at the digestive tract there are 4 major layers.1098

You will see 3 significant layers hear and I will mention the 4th layer in a moment.1103

But the innermost layer or deepest layer of esophagus is the mucosa.1108

Think of mucus that secreting stuff that is in the innermost parts.1112

The mucosa layer deepest, sub mucosa just superficial to that.1116

It is a supporting layer for the mucosa but some mucosa oftentimes can have blood flowing there.1121

Lymphatic tissue as well which has to do with protection and immune response.1128

The muscular layers are superficial than that and without the muscular layer you are not going to get that peristalsis happen to move food and liquids down.1134

There is an additional layer when you look at the stomach and further on down the GI tract it is called the serosa.1143

The serosa is absent from the esophagus.1150

You do not see significant serosa there but the advent tissue, that layer of tissue on the superficial most part of the esophagus1154

does have connective tissue that anchors it to the dorsal body wall.1163

The esophagus is really close to your back.1169

It is close to the spinal column, the vertebrae of your spine.1171

You want to keep your esophagus anchored.1176

You do not want it moving around within your body.1178

You want it to stay in put.1182

In general serosa and the other parts of the digestive tract allow connection of those organs to the organs around them1183

and also provide stability for the outer part of the organ.1193

Once you have threw liquid exiting the esophagus it is going to go into the stomach.1197

Right here at the top is something called the lower esophageal sphincter.1204

It is the lower part of the esophagus and the sphincter is a muscular doorway into the stomach.1209

It is not very tight.1215

In some animals it is much tighter.1217

I have heard that horses their sphincter is very tight and they are unable to vomit.1220

You want it to be tight enough to keep the food digesting in the stomach but if you have eaten something that is not good for your body1224

or too much is something your body sometimes has a need to expel.1234

We will talk more about the vomiting reflex in a bit.1238

But in general the stomach is a J shape organ meant for storage of food temporarily.1241

Mechanical and chemical breakdown and emptying of chyme into the small intestine.1247

Chyme is a mixture of gastric juice produced in the stomach and your partially digested food.1252

A lot of digestion happens in the stomach.1258

It can happen further on down as well.1260

Chime is exiting the stomach into the small intestine on a daily basis.1263

In terms of mechanical and chemical breakdown, mechanical is the physical movement that mashes or crushes something.1270

The stomach is filled with muscles that churn and your stomach does that while you are not thinking about it.1279

Of course a lot a chemical breakdown happens in the stomach as well through gastric secretions.1286

Gastric always means stomach.1291

4 layers like I have mentioned earlier.1294

Mucosa is the most deep layer without mucus is coming.1297

Sub mucosa is the supporting layer just superficial to that.1300

That is going to have the blood flow and lymphatic access and also nerves going in there.1304

Muscular layers those are connected in nerves because without stimulation of the muscles to contract they are not going to move.1311

You actually have 3 different orientations of muscles.1320

You have circular muscles, longitudinal muscles, oblique muscles, wrapped around the stomach in various ways that maximize the ability of it to churn.1325

The serosa is the outermost layer on the outside.1337

The most superficial layer that is protective and helping to anchor the stomach in place.1341

The stomach is slightly to your left.1346

People oftentimes touch this part of the abdominal area they are really touching where their abdominal muscles are and where it is mostly small intestine bundled up.1349

The stomach is actually superior to that and slightly lateral off to the left.1359

Your liver is slightly to the right.1366

The 4 regions of the stomach are the cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus.1369

You can see the labels here in this image from Gray's anatomy.1373

The cardiac portion has to do with the area the stomach that is adjacent to that esophageal opening.1376

The fundus is the part of the stomach that actually lies just superior to the opening.1382

The body is this area here that is where food tends to rest where chyme is going to be built up.1390

It is a very acidic mixture of gastric juice and partially digested food.1399

The pylorus is the part of stomach that leads to the pyloric sphincter which is the opening into the small intestine.1405

One more thing I want to mention before moving on is of the pyloric sphincter, its closing and opening is very important1414

because having food stay in the stomach not only is good for breaking it down further1421

and making it easier for your small intestine to break it down and absorb.1428

But also a disorder has been discovered in certain people who tend to become obese.1433

The small percentage of population they have a disorder where their pyloric sphincter is too loose.1439

It lets food exit the stomach too quickly.1446

You want food to stay in the stomach for a little while because there is a signal that goes to your brain that say you have eaten enough you can stop eating for now.1449

This meal is over effectively.1458

But if food is exiting the stomach out to the pyloric sphincter too quickly your brain has no time to get the signal and these people tend to overeat.1459

An operation that tightens the pyloric sphincter can actually help them better regulate their appetite.1469

It is an interesting discovery pertaining to the pyloric sphincter and the tendency to become obese.1475

I have just mentioned this about the lower esophageal sphincter right there at the bottom of the esophagus.1481

Here is my pyloric sphincter.1494

The lower esophageal sphincter up top is going to be right here.1496

That doorway to the stomach and here is the doorway out of the stomach.1507

If you look carefully in the mucosa layer of the stomach on the inside there are these little folds call rugae.1512

These folds increase the surface area within the lumen or the space in the stomach.1520

Just like in other parts of body where see increase surface area, more tissue means more absorption, more secretion.1525

Having it all these rugae maximized the ability of the stomach to release gastric juices for digestion.1533

Also as the stomach expands the more food you put it on, the rugae when they stretch out that allows greater expansion of stomach with ease.1541

Gastric pits are these little holes in the rugae where you are going to get gastric secretions.1551

In those pits you find gastric glands.1557

The 2 main cells apart from these gastric glands are parietal cells and chief cells.1561

Parietal cells have a lot to do with the release of hydrochloric acid into the lumen of the stomach.1566

We can call the mixture of this and other things gastric juice.1575

The interesting about parietal cells is if they produce and made hydrochloric acid with in the cytoplasm within the inside of that parietal cell,1579

that hydrochloric acid be enough to physically damage the parietal cell and break it down.1591

It is doing enough the parietal cells send out the H+.1597

If you go to chemistry HCL is made of H+ and Cl-.1602

This particular cation and this anion together make hydrochloric acid.1611

When they are separated it is really not hydrochloric acid.1617

The parietal cells send out the H+ and the Cl- separately and then they join together once they are getting out of the gastric pit and together in the stomach.1620

That hydrochloric acid has a lot to do with digestion and in keeping the acidy of stomach high.1636

Amazingly on there is an alkaline buffer.1641

Alkaline meaning basic the opposite acidic that keeps the stomach from digesting itself.1646

That buffer is good for the stomach not wearing away overtime.1652

When we look at chief cells, chief cells secrete a substance known as pepsinogen and pepsinogen is broken down in to pepsin because of the high acidity of the HCl.1657

Pepsin is an important part of gastric juice for digesting proteins and getting it broken up into little bits of amino acids1675

that eventually going to be absorbed primarily by the small intestine.1683

The stomach does some absorption but the main absorber, doing the majority of the absorption for the digestive tract is the small intestine.1688

Gastrin is one of those hormones that has a lot to do with the functionality of the stomach.1696

Grolin is a hormone that you do not read or hear a lot about.1703

In older anatomy textbooks when I took anatomy early on in my education I did not hear about this grolin hormone.1708

But there is more research these days to what this does.1719

This is a hormone released by the stomach that tells the brain we are hungry or we are not.1722

The more grolin that is released the more the brain feels we are hungry and we need to eat.1731

Once food enters the stomach and the stomach has expanded off, the amount of grolin is reduced and and do not feel as hungry.1737

After the stomach is the small intestine.1745

It plays a key role in digestion and absorption as there is further breakdown that happens here but a lot of absorption going on as well.1750

The small intestine amazingly if you are to stretch it and ends up being about 18 feet long sometimes 20 feet long in the average person.1758

And that is longer than the tallest person who ever lived ×2.1768

That is amazing to think about that there is that much intestine bundled up right here.1773

There are connective tissues keeping it tight to itself in a little bundle.1779

There are 3 main segments of the small intestine.1784

The duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum.1787

This is an order from this part being adjacent to the stomach to this part being adjacent to the large intestine.1790

Once again peristalsis, the muscular lining in the small intestine is going to help move that kind from1796

the stomach all the way through that 18 feet length eventually into the large intestine.1804

4 layers as before.1810

It is 4 layers of the stomach.1812

The mucosa, sub mucosa, muscular layer, and serosa.1814

You would find those in the small intestine as well.1818

We are going to focus on the mucosa and what that lining looks like.1821

If you are to take a cross section through the tube of your small intestine and look down it like you are looking down a barrel.1826

You would see these little finger like projections called villi.1833

Here is the lumen and that is the space right in their but each of these is a villus.1839

Villi is plural.1844

Villus and all of this is villi.1853

That little finger like projections.1855

When you zoom into one of them so here is one of those villi, if we zoomed into the surface of one single villus1857

there are little tiny microvilli on each of the cells of this epithelium.1870

Here is a layer of epithelium that goes all the way around the border.1877

And this just further increases the surface area.1881

I have heard that the surface area and all of your small intestine, if you open up all of that surface area and laid out flat like you were tiling a floor.1884

It would be close to the square footage of a comfortable 4 bedroom home.1899

That is amazing to think about that is all in your small intestine.1904

Each of these of villi have microvilli that further increase the ability to breakdown chemically the chime,1907

the digested food that is coming in and to absorb it effectively into each of these villi.1917

Each of the villi and micro villi are in the border.1923

You are going to have blood flow.1927

Blood flow coming into here that is how you get it into your bloodstream.1930

The nutrients into the bloodstream and are delivered to all the cells.1935

You also have something called a lactile.1938

This green projection, this lactile enables your lymphatic system, the immune system to have access to these villi.1941

That is important in the case something traveling through your digestive tract is a potential harm in terms of it containing bacteria or viruses. This lactile is another way that your body can defend yourself from foreign particles or pathogens that entered your digestive tract.1952

When you get to the end of the small intestine and later on we will come back to how bile factors into the small intestine through the breaking down of fats.1971

But when you get to the very end of the small intestine, the ileum, you have reached the appendix.1984

You can see from this Gray’s anatomy diagram here is the ileum and this is the end of the small intestine.1993

Here is the entrance into the colon or the large intestine.1998

Here is what is called the vermiform process or vermiform appendix.2003

Vermiform means worm like.2008

It does look like a little worm.2010

The appendix is a small worm like sac located near the opening into the colon or large intestine into the vestigial structure.2013

If you took biology, the vestigial structure is kind of like a remnant of some part from an ancestor that is reduced in size and it is of less importance.2020

Sometimes it is completely useless.2031

There are different theories about how useful the appendix is.2033

The best theory I have heard is that we still have this left over from one of our ancestors from millions of years ago.2037

If you look back at the anthropological record or if you were to ask a paleoanthropologist or somebody who specialize in the fossils of human ancestors,2045

they will tell you that some of the ancestors getting that made years ago did not eat cooked meat.2055

They ate vegetation but they also eat animal tissue without cooking it.2062

You are introducing a lot more bacteria into your body by not cooking on animal meat.2067

They think that this particular sac was a bit larger in those ancestors and that was conducive or helpful to the process of digesting that raw meat.2075

Overtime, when our ancestors finally started cooking meat that changes the proteins in terms of breaking down some of that stuff prior to putting it in your body prior to ingesting it.2086

It also kills all the bacteria so we think that the size of this has gradually been reduced over millions of years.2099

Maybe one day in our descendants it could be gone.2106

It is hard to say how long will take that to happen.2110

But the interesting thing is that when you do get it removed because of infection many doctors will caution the person2113

and say now that we have removed your appendix it is a good idea that you do not eat sushi right away or be careful with introducing raw animal tissues2120

because you are more sensitive when you are missing appendix.2132

Many people differently on depending on who the person is but an appendicitis is an infection of the appendix.2135

Too much bacteria inside of their can cause it to swell up and get it inflamed where it pops, it bursts and that could kill a person.2141

An appendectomy is the removal of the appendix.2152

Since it is vestigial, since it is typically not needed there is no harm in removing the appendix.2156

The large intestine begins right here and it kind of loops around where the small intestine is located right middle here.2162

It includes the cecan which is the initial part right here and the colon segments.2173

It is for the reabsorption of water.2178

It makes your feces, your wastes solid.2181

That is why I say your formation of solid feces is the primary function because when you get diarrhea that means2187

that your large intestine is not doing the job it should be doing of sucking water out of the lumen and making feces solid.2194

Diarrhea is excessively watery feces.2202

It is uncomfortable.2205

You do not feel good and that is because some bacteria or virus is inhibiting your large intestines ability to do its job.2206

Beyond that, other nutrients are absorbed in the large intestine.2214

It is not just absorbing water out of it.2218

Some nutrients are absorbed in large intestine but far less than in the stomach in the small intestine.2222

The 4 regions are the ascending colon, since this is rising up on the right side of your body ascending.2227

Transverse it goes across horizontally right under where the liver is and then stomach.2235

The descending colon right here it descends and physically moves down.2242

As you move through these segments more and more water has been sucked out of it since it is supposed to happen to the point where we get to the sigmoid colon.2246

This S shaped curve by the time you get to the rectum where feces are stored hopefully it is solid feces ready for excretion.2256

The rectum is that last 15 cm in the digestive tract right in here.2267

Here is that sigmoid colon and it is for storage of feces.2274

Storage of feces, in terms of evolution dates back to having a planned and intentional disposal of your feces in certain areas to mark your territory.2278

You do not want it to be constant letting go of waste because when a predator was trying hunt you, you are better be able to track you.2291

The timed elimination and control of one feces dates back to that.2300

The storage of feces happens in the rectum and eventually you get down to the anus that muscular doorway where feces are expelled through.2305

The anus, exit of feces happens there.2317

There are 2 anal sphincters or 2 sets of muscular doorways.2320

The internal anal sphincter is a little bit deeper in terms of being internal in your body is involuntary.2324

You have no conscious control over it.2332

As the rectum fills up you are going to get a loosening or relaxing of the internal anal sphincter in response to the crowding of feces.2334

Once it gets too full it is time to let it go.2345

You do have control over your external anal sphincter.2348

When someone is actively trying to hold in feces they are contracting the external anal sphincter and the relaxing of that is going to let feces through.2352

Hemorrhoids happen when there is too much irritation of the blood vessels that are around the rectum in the anal region.2363

That causes dilation or swelling of those blood vessels.2372

As hard feces move pass them or as they are pushed past forcefully it causes bleeding.2376

These enlarged blood vessels bleeding are not very comfortable, not very healthy in the long run.2385

The way that you can minimize the occurrence of hemorrhoids and bleeding in that region is to get fiber in your diet.2392

Fiber helps keep your feces a little softer.2399

Really hard feces can happen when you do not use much plant products.2404

We do not use much fiber and the meat content a little too high that leads to really hard feces which are rubbed on these walls much more.2408

Also drinking more water is going to help and not pushing when you are in the toilet. Pushing on the toilet is going to irritate the walls of this part of the digestive tract.2419

Making it more likely they are going to develop hemorrhoids and that bleeding will happen.2430

By the way hemorrhoids can be removed surgically.2434

That is typically not done unless they are severe.2438

If you do have hemorrhoids see a doctor and they will test to make sure that is all it is.2443

That is just hemorrhoids because blood in your stool or fecal matter in the toilet could be a sign of colon cancer.2448

Definitely get that checked out.2456

They will do colonoscopy which is where they actually move a camera up through the large intestine to see if there are growths of polyps.2458

They will take tissue samples of them to see if they are cancerous.2469

We have covered the digestive tract.2472

The GI tract or alimentary canal we are talking about the accessory organs that are off to the side but are very important in digestion.2476

The liver is one of them.2485

The gallbladder which is tucked underneath it this green sac.2487

The pancreas is hidden in this image because it is a little bit behind the stomach.2491

A little bit behind the large intestine but there is right there that yellow organ.2495

The liver this the first line of the liver.2500

It is the largest visceral or internal body organ.2503

The largest one will be the skin.2506

A significant sized organ is slightly off to the right side of the superior part of your abdominal cavity.2508

2 lobes here is one, the larger one is on the right and this one a little bit more centrally located.2517

They are separated by fossil form ligament.2523

It is like a white band in between the two deep dark reddish portions of the liver.2527

One of the reasons the liver is such a deep dark organ is the high amount of blood flow.2533

There are a lot of blood flow deliver all throughout the day.2538

If you take all the blood out of liver and look at that organ from a dead body, it still has a reddish purplish tone.2541

When it is a living being it is very red as an organ.2550

About 25% of your blood in any given moment could be in the liver.2554

Hepatocytes are liver cells that word hepato always pertains to the liver and are located within lobules.2559

If you take a cross section of liver and look at what is in it with a microscope there are these little round regions called lobules.2566

In there you have hepatocytes.2577

You have lots of blood vessels.2581

You have lymphatic tissue in these little clusters.2584

That is how the livers are arranged microscopically.2588

The major functions of the liver.2591

It is no coincidence that it is called the liver without it you are not going to live.2592

It has many functions.2597

Carbohydrate, lipid, and amino acid metabolism.2599

It assists with the breaking down of all of these macromolecules, all these different organic molecules that you eat on a daily basis.2603

It also has to do with the storage of glycogen.2612

Your glucose levels in the bloodstream have a lot to do with the action of your liver.2616

Glycogen is a large polysaccharide.2622

It is like analogous to starch in plants.2625

Starches help plants to store sugars.2630

We store it as glycogen.2632

If you have not eaten in a long time or maybe you are gone for a long run, your blood sugar levels might be low.2634

Your liver is stimulated to break down glycogen in individual of glucose is that are sent into the bloodstream.2642

You also do store some glycogen in your muscles but there is a lot of it in your liver.2649

You also do store lipids and overtime one way that you can get too much lipid storage in your liver is abuse of alcohol can lead to developing a fatty liver.2654

The liver get enlarged and take on a whitish appearance because of excess lipid storage2668

and in the long run than enlarged liver can eventually lead to cirrhosis which I will get to in a bit.2673

Waste product removal, the removal of waste from your bloodstream happens significantly in the liver.2681

Bio production, bio which we will talk about more in a little bit with the gallbladder has to do with the emulsification of fats.2688

Breaking down of fats into tinier bits and makes it easier for enzymes to break them down and absorb them.2697

Vitamin storage, A, B, K, B12 these vitamins are stored in the liver.2703

You need to consume those in your diet that is a matter of keeping yourself healthy.2712

If you do not get enough in your diet you are going to be releasing them out of the liver to supplement your cells with those particular vitamins.2718

Breakdown of drugs, alcohol, drugs, whether legal or illegal your liver is breaking them down.2725

The reason why some medications that are prescribed need to be taken once a day or four times a day it has to do with the speed at which the liver breaks down the drug.2731

My dad worked for a pharmaceutical company that figured out that if they just added a certain molecular component to the drug2743

they already made it would slow down the livers ability to get rid of it.2751

To physically break it down and eliminate it through waste in the body.2756

Just adding that little molecular component made it so that you only had to give one injection of this drug per week instead of once a day or multiple times a day.2760

The liver has its own pace with breaks down alcohol, with breaks down drugs, and that has a lot to do with genetic factors and tolerance of the drug over time.2773

More on the liver.2783

Phagocytosis and antigen presentation.2787

This is a part of your livers ability to assist with your immune system.2790

Phagocytosis not just of foreign bodies that are coming into the liver through the blood flow but also swallowing up red blood cells that are damaged.2795

The phagocytosis are eating of red blood cells and breaking them down.2807

Your liver assists with presenting antigens usually protein components on the surface of foreign invaders or pathogens to assist with your immune systems ability to kill those things.2810

Synthesis of plasma proteins.2823

Blood cells are made typically in a bone marrow but a lot of the proteins that end up in the fluid of your blood up are produced in the liver.2825

Removal of hormones.2835

Hormones release from all different endocrine glands throughout the body but your liver has lot to do with taking in excess adrenalin, insulin,2837

and removal of those hormones from the body when they are no longer needed.2846

Removal of antibodies.2850

Antibodies are supposed to be in your blood stream at certain times.2853

Other times they are removed.2859

Antibodies allow white blood cells to adequately and efficiently attack foreign invaders.2860

Antibodies the amazing thing is when your liver takes them in through removing from your bloodstream,2867

your liver can break down the antibodies into individual amino acids because antibodies are made of protein.2872

Your liver can reuse those amino acids to make other proteins.2878

For instance plasma proteins, they can recycle those little bits.2883

Like I have mentioned earlier the removal of red blood cells are very important.2886

The breakdown of those red blood cells is going to lead to the formation of bilirubin which has been discussed in other lesson that I went over.2890

The removal /storage of toxins.2901

The stuff in your bloodstream that does not belong there.2903

Toxin substances the liver is going to remove that.2907

One example is hydrogen peroxide.2909

There are so many things the liver can remove but hydrogen peroxide is broken down by enzyme called catalyst.2913

The liver of every living being not just humans contains catalyst, the enzyme that breaks down H2O2.2921

Next is the gallbladder.2929

Gallbladder stores bile.2932

The liver produces bile and then sends it to the gallbladder.2934

That is located just inferior to liver.2938

Here is an inferior view from underneath the liver.2942

You can see that there are these hepatic veins or hepatic means of liver.2946

These veins that are helping to take blood from the liver to go back to the heart.2950

Here is the inferior Vena Cava that is the major vein that is going back to the right atrium.2955

The common hepatic duct is what is going to take bile from the deliver to the gallbladder and then the common bile duct connects the gallbladder to the duodenum.2963

The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine which we are going to get a better view when I show you the pancreas slide.2975

If it was not for that common bile duct you would not be getting bile into the small intestine.2983

Bile is made from a lot of resources.2990

One of the sources is cholesterol.2994

It contains things like bile salts and the bile in general like I said earlier emulsifies fats.2996

The emulsification of fats is a fancy term for breaking down lipids into smaller bits that make it easier for enzymes to further break them down3004

into tiny chemical bits for absorption into the small intestine.3021

Bile helps break down fats big time.3025

You got to get a lot of bile in the duodenum.3029

You produce something like a liter of bile per day on average and that bile can creep up in the stomach because duodenum is right next to it.3031

Bile can also be found further down the line in the small intestine.3040

Bile can also be reabsorbed from the intestines and it can actually go back to the liver and can be recycled throughout the day.3046

Some people do get their gallbladder removal and I will talk more about gallstones.3056

The reason why you do not need a gallbladder is as long as the common hepatic duct is still connected through the bile duct that takes the duodenum,3061

you do not need that temporary holding sac for the bile.3074

I know people who have had their gall bladder removed but their liver still producing it and still sending it down at the small intestine.3079

The pancreas this is an endocrine organ has a lot to do with hormones but it also is a definite part of the digestive system.3086

It lies posterior just behind stomach in between the duodenum and the spleen which is a lymphatic organ and part of the immune system.3095

It is about 15cm long, pinkish grey, and it is got a body and a tail.3104

Here is the body of the pancreas.3109

The tail is that tapered part that is closer to the left side of your body.3111

You can see here is the duodenum, the beginning of the small intestine.3117

Your spleen would be right over here.3120

It produces digestive enzymes and buffers.3123

Here are some examples of the enzymes that are produce and sent out to the pancreatic duct.3126

You can see that this connects to the duodenum just like the bile duct connects to the duodenum.3132

Pancreatic alpha amylase this is very similar to salivary amylase in your saliva.3140

This helps breakdown sugars.3145

Pancreatic lipids the fact that helps break down fats.3147

Nuclease are enzymes that breakdown DNA and RNA because when you are consuming plants or animal products they have DNA and RNA too.3151

The perioditic enzyme also known as protease that is one of the main kinds of these enzymes.3160

They help breakdown proteins.3165

Some digestive conditions and disorders.3168

Gastritis is an irritation or infection of the stomach.3173

It is curable.3178

Antibiotics can help with that.3179

Ulcers do not just happen in the stomach.3182

They can happen in various parts of the digestive tract.3187

It is a wearing away of the lining and it can be very painful and there can be even some internal bleeding.3190

There was this myth years ago that stress cause ulcers.3196

Stress can lower the effectiveness of your immune system and that can make an ulcer more likely to happen.3202

But it is not a direct cause.3211

There are actually a kind of bacterium that has been linked to the causing of ulcers.3212

It is pilori, I will later on about the specific name of it.3218

There is a kind of bacterium that is the root of causing ulcers.3229

Antibiotics can get rid of it.3234

H pilori causes ulcers.3236

Gallstones, if there is inability of getting bile salts out of the gallbladder and into the small intestine effectively you get this back up3249

and the build up of bile pile salts leads to the formation of stones.3261

This is a gallbladder that has been taken in a person’s body, you can see they are literally stones.3266

Hard deposits that are caused this back up.3271

This person is still able to get bile out of their liver to the small intestine but this needed to be removed.3276

The back up inability of bile to go from liver to the small intestine can be a problem.3282

Cholera is an infection that causes massive diarrhea and massive fluid loss.3289

This in the past killed much more people because the discovery of antibiotics and getting rid of the bacteria that can cause cholera has saved many lives.3296

But cholera if untreated can dehydrate a person so much that it kills them.3308

Hepatitis is an infection of the liver.3313

Hepatitis A, B, C, D, or E.3316

A is the least harmful type typically.3319

Hepatitis in general is infections of the liver can be deadly because the liver is an organ that is very important.3323

Jaundice is the inability of the liver to regulate the amount of bilirubin in the bloodstream can lead to jaundice.3330

When this bilirubin molecule is throughout the body way too much, the buildup of it in the skin and even eyes causes this yellowish kind of appearance.3342

You can see from this particular image, this guy his sclera are even yellow, the whites in his eyes.3352

Depending on your skin tone the yellowish of the skin is going to be more apparent.3361

I found that my aunt who was a nurse in a neonatal unit in the hospital said that babies who have jaundice right after they are born,3367

they found that if they put on heat lamps on them that actually can help get rid of jaundice fairly quickly.3378

Jaundice is something that is curable but the yellowness is not very pleasant.3387

Cirrhosis is liver disease that is a liver that has been damaged overtime by too many toxins, drug abuse, alcohol abuse overtime causes cirrhosis.3394

If you do not get liver transplant cirrhosis is deadly.3408

Constipation is having feces that are just way too solid and too rough.3411

That backup and solid balls of fecal matter causes a backup and it is hard to physically push it out.3417

Like I have mentioned earlier with hemorrhoids, getting more fiber, more plant material in your diet, whole grains, more water in your diet,3427

and lessening the amount of meat intake can help a lot with constipation.3436

Diarrhea like I have mentioned with large intestine before is a virus or bacterium that has inhibited your large intestines ability to reabsorb water.3441

That excess water in your fecal matter is going to cause diarrhea.3452

Lactose intolerance, there are genetic links to lactose intolerance where the amount of lactase, the enzyme that breaks down lactose3456

and dairy products is just not as high in certain people as in others.3466

I have no problem digesting lactose.3470

I can eat a lot of cheese, or ice cream and I feel fine.3473

I do not notice any negative effects when I go to the bathroom.3476

Some people do.3479

Some people it just takes a little bit of cheese, ice cream, or milk and may have that uncomfortable sensation in their GI tract and then may notice trouble on the toilet.3480

There are medications that can assist your body's ability to break down lactose.3494

There are pills that you can take to help with lactose intolerance.3499

Gingivitis or gum disease known as gingivitis is a gum infection.3504

The gingiva is a technical term for your gums.3510

Not brushing your teeth adequately, not flossing can lead to gingivitis.3513

Periodontal disease is another example of a disease that is going to impact your teeth and you are more likely to lose your teeth if that is not treated.3519

Brushing your teeth twice a day and using floss is going to minimize the chances of getting gingivitis.3528

You do not want to get that.3534

It is going to give you bad breath and very unattractive appearance in terms of your oral health.3535

This is actually from what I have heard the most common bacterial infection on planet earth.3542

Because if you look at populations around the globe, various people are not keeping their mouth as clean as they could.3548

They may not have access to a toothbrush or toothpaste or dental care.3556

Gingivitis is a very common mouth infection and very common bacterial infection in general.3560

Thank you for watching www.educator.com.3566

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