Home » Biology » Microbiology » Microbial Genetics

Connecting...

This is a quick preview of the lesson. For full access, please Log In or Sign up.
For more information, please see full course syllabus of Microbiology
Bookmark & Share Embed

Share this knowledge with your friends!

Copy & Paste this embed code into your website’s HTML

Please ensure that your website editor is in text mode when you paste the code.
(In Wordpress, the mode button is on the top right corner.)
  ×
  • - Allow users to view the embedded video in full-size.

  • Discussion

  • Study Guides

  • Download Lecture Slides

  • Table of Contents

  • Related Books

Lecture Comments (3)

2 answers

Last reply by: stefania markou
Mon Dec 15, 2014 9:44 PM

Post by stefania markou on December 15, 2014

Dr Carpenter ,
on Microbial Genetics lecture, the slide on Germline Mutation and Evolutionary Biology, it states that only germ cell mutations are transmitted to offspring. This statement confuses me. The word "only" is what confuses me . Could you please explain it? Thank you very much ! I enjoy all your lectures! very educational indeed !

Microbial Genetics

  • What is a gene?
    • Enzyme, biochemical, genetic coding definitions
  • Replication, transcription, translation, regulation
    • Induction and repression of bacterial genome
  • Mutation
    • Germline and somatic mutations
    • Causes and types of mutation
  • Bacterial Genetics
    • Gene recombination, transformation, conjugation and transduction
    • Bacterial plasmids and transposons

Microbial Genetics

Lecture Slides are screen-captured images of important points in the lecture. Students can download and print out these lecture slide images to do practice problems as well as take notes while watching the lecture.

  1. Intro
    • What is a Gene?
    • What is a Gene?
    • Genetic Code
      • Transcription and Replication
        • Replication of Bacterial DNA
        • DNA Transcription
        • Bacterial Transcription
        • Translation
        • Gene Regulation
        • Regulation of Transcription
          • Repression
            • Induction
              • Germline Mutation
              • Mutations
              • Causes of Mutations
              • Types of Mutations
              • Bacterial Gene Recombination
              • Genetic Recombination
              • Bacterial Recombination
                • Bacterial Transformation
                  • Conjugation in E. Coli
                    • Transduction by a Bacteriophage
                      • Plasmids
                      • R-Factor, A Type of Plasmid
                        • Transposons
                        • Example 1
                          • Example 2
                            • Example 3
                              • Intro 0:00
                              • What is a Gene? 0:39
                                • A Portion of the Chromosome That Determines or Affects a Single Character or Phenotype
                                • Biochemical Definition of a Gene
                                • Original Definition: One Gene-One Polypeptide
                              • What is a Gene? 1:48
                                • Regulatory Sequence
                              • Genetic Code 2:44
                              • Transcription and Replication 3:56
                              • Replication of Bacterial DNA 5:05
                                • Copy Both Sides of DNA Strand
                              • DNA Transcription 5:53
                                • DNA is Transcribed to Make RNA
                                • RNA Polymerase Binds to the Promoter Sequence
                                • Direction
                                • Transcription Stops When It Reaches the Terminator Sequence
                              • Bacterial Transcription 6:39
                                • Transcription
                                • No Nucleus
                              • Translation 7:51
                                • mRNA is Translated In Codons
                                • Translation of mRNA Begins at the Start Codon
                                • Translation Ends at Nonsense Codon
                              • Gene Regulation 8:34
                                • Constitutive Genes Are Expressed at a Fixed Rate
                                • Other Genes Are Expressed Only as Needed
                              • Regulation of Transcription 9:11
                              • Repression 10:16
                              • Induction 11:04
                              • Germline Mutation 12:09
                                • Evolutionary Biology
                                • Molecular Biology
                              • Mutations 14:34
                                • Random and Rare
                                • Can Be Beneficial or Neutral
                                • Not All Mutations Matter
                                • Somatic Mutations
                                • Germline Mutations
                              • Causes of Mutations 16:44
                                • DNA Fails to Copy Accurately
                                • External Influences Can Create Mutations
                              • Types of Mutations 18:14
                                • Substitution
                                • Examples of Substitutions
                                • Silent Mutations
                                • Insertion
                                • Deletion
                                • Frame Shift
                              • Bacterial Gene Recombination 22:16
                                • Vertical Gene Transfer
                                • Horizontal Gene Transfer
                              • Genetic Recombination 23:46
                                • Exchange of Genes Between Two DNA Molecules
                                • Crossing Over Occurs When Two Chromosomes Break and Rejoin
                                • Recipient Chromosome Contains New DNA
                              • Bacterial Recombination 24:51
                              • Bacterial Transformation 25:53
                              • Conjugation in E. Coli 28:36
                              • Transduction by a Bacteriophage 30:04
                              • Plasmids 31:53
                                • What are Plasmids?
                                • F-Factor
                                • Other Plasmids Encode for Proteins That Enhance the Pathogenicity of a Bacterium
                                • Dissimilation Plasmids
                                • R Factors
                              • R-Factor, A Type of Plasmid 33:53
                              • Transposons 35:04
                                • Move From One Region of DNA to Another
                                • Contain Insertion Sequences for Cutting and Resealing DNA (Tansposase)
                              • Example 1 36:14
                              • Example 2 37:34
                              • Example 3 38:15

                              Related Books

                              Catherine Carpenter

                              Catherine Carpenter

                              Microbial Genetics

                              Slide Duration:

                              Table of Contents

                              Section 1: Introduction to Microbiology
                              History of Microbiology

                              40m 36s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Overview of Microbiology
                              0:35
                              What is Microbiology?
                              0:39
                              History of Microbiology
                              0:47
                              What is Microbiology?
                              3:11
                              Study of Biology of Pathogen
                              4:05
                              Study of Biology of Vector
                              4:13
                              Biology of Human Host
                              4:28
                              Microbiology
                              6:32
                              Study of Microorganisms
                              6:35
                              Includes Viruses, Small Macroscopic Organisms, and Parasites
                              7:48
                              Microorganisms are Responsible for Cycling the Chemical Elements Essential for Life
                              9:32
                              Produce More Energy Through Photosynthesis Than Plants
                              10:00
                              90% of Cells in Our Body are Microbes
                              11:20
                              Important Discoveries in Microbiology
                              11:29
                              Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
                              11:48
                              Invented of the Microscope
                              11:59
                              What Was Leeuwenhoek's World?
                              12:47
                              The First Smallpox Vaccination: Jenner 1796
                              13:25
                              Jenner Invented the First Vaccine
                              13:35
                              Protected from Smallpox
                              13:58
                              Edward Jenner and Vaccination
                              14:49
                              Cowpox Virus
                              15:25
                              Material Used for Vaccine Probably Contained Cowpox Virus
                              15:46
                              Inoculate James Phipps by Taking Pus from the Lesions on the Hands of a Diary Maid
                              16:20
                              Louis Pasteur and Theory of Spontaneous Generation
                              17:58
                              Pasteur's S-Shaped Flask Kept Microbes Out but Let Air In
                              18:04
                              Disproved Theory of Spontaneous Generation
                              18:20
                              Fermentation, Pasteurization, and Vaccination: Louis Pasteur
                              19:53
                              Fermentation
                              19:54
                              Pasteurizing
                              20:14
                              Vaccination
                              20:56
                              The Germ Theory of Disease: Robert Koch
                              21:13
                              Koch's Postulates
                              21:47
                              Koch's Postulates
                              23:13
                              Procedure to Determine Criteria to Establish Casual Relationship Between a Microbe and Disease
                              23:34
                              A Fortunate Accident: Antibiotics
                              25:40
                              Alexander Fleming Discovered the First Antibiotic
                              25:55
                              Summary of Important Discoveries
                              27:12
                              Ability to Visualize Microorganisms
                              27:49
                              Vaccination
                              28:59
                              Fermentation, Pasteurization and Vaccination from Rabies
                              29:21
                              Germ Theory of Disease
                              29:42
                              Antibiotics
                              30:08
                              Example 1
                              31:36
                              Example 2
                              32:02
                              Example 3
                              33:56
                              Example 4
                              37:53
                              Example 5
                              38:57
                              Laboratory Testing & Visualization

                              44m 19s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Laboratory Testing and Visualization
                              0:37
                              Serology
                              1:09
                              Visualization: Types of Microscopes
                              1:32
                              A Clinical Microbiology Lab Report Form
                              1:57
                              Generalized Tests for Microorganisms
                              2:36
                              Morphological Characteristics
                              2:44
                              Differential Staining
                              3:00
                              Biochemical Tests
                              3:45
                              A Clinical Microbiology Lab Report Form
                              4:19
                              Serology
                              6:38
                              Detect Levels of Antibodies
                              6:46
                              Blood Serum
                              7:43
                              Recent of Past Infection
                              7:59
                              Differentiate Different Strains
                              9:39
                              Example of Serology Testing for HBV
                              10:02
                              Direct Agglutination Testing
                              12:52
                              Visual Test
                              13:08
                              Positive Results
                              13:16
                              Antibodies Sufficient in Level
                              14:13
                              ELISA Test
                              15:56
                              Sandwich ELISA
                              16:39
                              Western Blot
                              18:56
                              Proteins are Positioned on the Filter so Antibodies Can Bind to the Antigens
                              19:09
                              Filter is Then Washed with Patient's Serum
                              19:27
                              Positive Test for Particular Microorganisms
                              20:04
                              Flow Cytometry
                              21:09
                              Used to Identify Bacteria Without Culturing the Bacteria
                              21:17
                              Moving Fluid Containing Bacteria is Forced Through Small Opening
                              22:03
                              Differences in Electrical Conductivity Between the Cells are Detected
                              22:17
                              Results Distinguishing Three Different Species of Microorganisms
                              22:56
                              Genetic Testing: DNA Fingerprinting
                              23:49
                              Way to Specify and Differentiate Bacteria
                              25:36
                              Some Produce Taxon
                              25:47
                              Used as a Proxy for Microbial Cell Abundance
                              26:13
                              Detailed Figure
                              26:43
                              Pattern Matching to Determine Bacterial Strain
                              27:22
                              Example
                              28:00
                              Picture of That
                              28:04
                              Instruments to Visualize Microorganisms
                              29:36
                              Light Microscope
                              30:22
                              Image
                              31:18
                              Darkfield Microscopy
                              31:44
                              An Illumination Technique Used to Enhance the Contrast in Unstained Samples
                              31:51
                              How It Works
                              32:01
                              Planaria in Pond Water
                              32:19
                              Electron Microscope
                              32:55
                              Uses Electron Beam to Illuminate a Specimen and Produce a Magnified Image
                              33:23
                              Electron Microscopy
                              33:34
                              Electron Microscope Image
                              34:23
                              Atomic Force Microscope
                              34:41
                              Manipulates Matter at the Nanoscale
                              35:09
                              Atomic Force Microscopy Image
                              35:37
                              Atomic Force Imaging
                              35:54
                              Instruments to Visualize Microorganisms
                              37:02
                              Light Microscopes
                              37:18
                              Example 1
                              37:28
                              Example 2
                              40:19
                              Example 3
                              40:57
                              Example 4
                              42:13
                              Example 5
                              42:35
                              Present Day Importance of Microbiology

                              43m 48s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Two Important Topic Area in Microbiology
                              0:41
                              Gut Microbiome
                              1:21
                              A Forgotten Organ
                              1:25
                              Colonization of the Gut Begins at Birth
                              2:34
                              Factors That Alter the Relationship
                              4:02
                              Pathologic Inflammation
                              7:05
                              Commensal Species
                              9:47
                              Pathobionts
                              10:28
                              Functional Comparison of the Gut Microbiome with Other Sequenced Microbiomes
                              10:38
                              Genes and Microbiome
                              11:34
                              Vitamin K Example
                              12:00
                              Escherichia Coli
                              13:07
                              Genomes of the Bacteria and Viruses of the Human Gut Encode 3.3 Million Genes
                              14:02
                              Link to Microbiome and Health
                              14:57
                              Antibiotic Resistance
                              15:42
                              Natural Selection, Survival of the Fittest, Adaptation
                              16:39
                              Theory of Evolution
                              17:07
                              Origin of Species
                              17:13
                              Darwin Came Up with Theory
                              17:50
                              Link to Theory of Evolution
                              18:01
                              Natural Selection
                              19:03
                              Natural Selection
                              19:09
                              Adaptive Trait
                              19:21
                              Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria
                              19:49
                              Two Week Course of Antibiotics
                              20:10
                              Antibiotic Resistant Strains Found in Hospitals and Schools
                              21:21
                              Evolution of Resistant Bacteria
                              22:01
                              Evolution of Resistance
                              24:06
                              Natural Selection
                              24:08
                              Some Bacteria Transfers the Resistant Genes to Other Bacteria Who Don't Have It
                              24:24
                              It Reproduces and Soon Populates an Antibiotic Resistant Infection
                              25:06
                              Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria
                              25:30
                              Acquired Resistance
                              25:31
                              Resistance Develops by Mutation of Resident or by Acquisition of New Genes
                              26:55
                              Flourish in Areas of High Antimicrobial Use
                              27:10
                              Spread of Antibiotic Resistance
                              27:19
                              Selection of Resistant Bacteria by Overuse and Misuse of Antibiotics
                              29:02
                              Multiple Antibiotics
                              29:46
                              Antibiotics Used Unnecessarily
                              30:35
                              Bacterial and Viral Pneumonia
                              31:13
                              Indiscriminant Use of Antibiotic
                              31:52
                              Unnecessary Antibiotics Can Promote Resistant Bacteria
                              32:25
                              Future Antibiotics May Lose Effectiveness
                              32:33
                              Ease of Obtaining Antibiotics
                              33:11
                              Over the Counter
                              33:13
                              Encourages Indiscriminant and Inappropriate Use of Antibiotics
                              33:25
                              Use in Animal Feed
                              34:26
                              Prevent Infections and Promote Growth
                              34:30
                              Animals Can Develop Resistance Also
                              35:03
                              Tutorial on Antibiotic Resistance
                              36:05
                              Example 1
                              36:32
                              Example 2
                              39:30
                              Section 2: Cell Biology
                              Biology of the Prototype Cell

                              10m 2s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Cellular Organization
                              0:14
                              Prokaryotes
                              0:27
                              Eukaryotes
                              0:48
                              Three Domains of Life
                              0:51
                              Eubacteria
                              1:02
                              Archaebacteria
                              1:09
                              Eukaryotes
                              1:15
                              Evolution of Bacteria
                              1:21
                              Common Qualities
                              2:02
                              Nucleus
                              2:12
                              Plasma Membrane
                              2:47
                              Cytoplasm
                              3:09
                              Multicellularity
                              3:17
                              Multicellularity Evolved
                              3:28
                              Cells Gave Rise to Earth's First Lineage of Multicellular Organisms
                              3:57
                              Fossils of Bangiomorpha Pubescens are 1.2 Billion Years Old
                              4:18
                              Cells Differentiated for Attaching to a Substrate
                              4:37
                              Longitudinal Division Divides Disc-Shaped Cells Into Radially Arranged Wedge-Shaped Cells
                              4:54
                              According to Energy
                              5:08
                              Phototrophs
                              5:36
                              Chemotrophs
                              6:02
                              Introducing Prokaryotic Cells
                              6:46
                              Bacteria and Archaea
                              6:51
                              Smallest Form of Life
                              6:58
                              Similar in Appearance and Size
                              7:06
                              Aerobic
                              7:13
                              Anaerobic
                              7:19
                              Facultative
                              7:26
                              Example 1
                              7:37
                              Example 2
                              9:02
                              Structures in Common & Structures That Are Unique

                              8m 40s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Structures
                              0:22
                              Way to Remember Cell Structures
                              0:23
                              Membrane Similarities
                              0:34
                              Both Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes Have Plasma Membrane
                              0:42
                              Replication Molecules
                              1:17
                              Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes Have DNA and RNA
                              1:18
                              One Way Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes are Different
                              1:41
                              Genome Differences
                              1:49
                              Eukaryotes
                              1:52
                              Prokaryotes
                              2:12
                              Cell Division Differences
                              2:43
                              Prokaryotes
                              2:49
                              Eukaryotes
                              2:55
                              Organelle Differences
                              3:07
                              Eukaryotes
                              3:10
                              Prokaryotes
                              3:31
                              Energy Metabolism Differences
                              3:42
                              Eukaryotes
                              3:48
                              Prokaryotes
                              4:21
                              Cytoskeleton Differences
                              4:41
                              Eukaryotes
                              4:50
                              Prokaryotes
                              5:27
                              Example 1
                              5:46
                              Example 2
                              7:13
                              DNA & RNA

                              11m 46s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Which Came First
                              0:31
                              RNA Came First
                              0:38
                              Short RNA Molecules
                              0:54
                              Stored Information
                              1:05
                              Early RNA
                              1:21
                              Synthesized Proteins and Carried Info
                              1:24
                              Information Carrying Role of RNA
                              1:36
                              Evolution of Double-Stranded DNA Enabled the Storage of More Complex Info
                              2:01
                              DNA Became a Better Mechanism for Information Storage of Complex Traits
                              2:13
                              Replicating Molecules
                              2:35
                              Replicating Molecules Evolved and Began to Undergo Natural Selection
                              2:51
                              Replication
                              3:05
                              Protein Synthesis
                              3:13
                              RNA Evolves Into DNA
                              3:24
                              DNA Contains Instruction
                              3:32
                              RNA Transcribes DNA
                              3:54
                              Proteins Are Made from the Instructions
                              3:59
                              DNA Structure
                              4:15
                              Chromosomal DNA
                              5:02
                              DNA Coiling
                              5:26
                              DNA - Nucleic Functions
                              5:51
                              Transcription
                              6:04
                              Replication
                              6:29
                              Function of DNA
                              7:10
                              DNA Replication
                              7:36
                              Complete Unzipping of DNA
                              7:38
                              Assembly of Complementary Nucleotides
                              7:47
                              Only Occurs in Cell Division
                              8:09
                              DNA Replication Diagram
                              8:18
                              DNA Transcription and Translation
                              8:41
                              Example 1
                              9:46
                              Example 2
                              10:27
                              Example 3
                              10:45
                              Motility

                              11m 24s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Motility is an Important Property
                              0:26
                              Flagella
                              0:37
                              Pili
                              0:55
                              Prokaryotic Cell
                              1:08
                              Pili
                              1:38
                              Fimbriae
                              1:45
                              Pili Connect a Bacterium to Others of the Same Species
                              1:57
                              Transferred Plasmids Can Bring a New Function to the Cell
                              2:37
                              Fimbriae
                              3:07
                              Distributed Over the Entire Surface of the Cell
                              3:08
                              Have a Tendency to Adhere to Surfaces and to One Another
                              3:17
                              Example: Neisseria Gonorrhea
                              3:40
                              An Electron Micrograph of E Coli
                              3:53
                              Bacterial Conjugation with Pilus
                              4:12
                              Prokaryotic Flagella
                              5:14
                              Eukaryotes
                              5:34
                              Prokaryotes
                              5:43
                              Underneath Inner Plasma Membrane in Gram Positive and Gram Negative Bacteria
                              6:05
                              Different Types of Flagella
                              6:13
                              Flagella Organization
                              6:14
                              Bacteria Alters Speed and Direction of Rotation
                              7:11
                              Examples
                              8:07
                              Example 1
                              8:41
                              Example 2
                              10:05
                              Plasma Membrane

                              16m 11s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Plasma Membrane
                              0:22
                              Functions of Plasma Membrane
                              0:28
                              Physical Isolation
                              0:31
                              Regulation of Exchange with the Environment
                              1:05
                              Communication Between the Cell and Its Environment
                              1:46
                              Structural Support
                              2:28
                              Plasma Membrane Composition
                              2:46
                              Lipids
                              2:59
                              Proteins
                              3:17
                              Carbohydrates
                              3:43
                              Lipid Bi-Layer of Plasma Membrane
                              4:19
                              Micelle
                              4:28
                              Bilayer
                              5:11
                              Liposome
                              5:40
                              Cellular Evolution
                              5:59
                              Evoloution of Membranes Advantages
                              6:49
                              Encased Cells Out-Competed Naked Cells
                              7:37
                              Plasma Membrane Structure
                              7:57
                              Plasma Membrane Differences
                              10:59
                              Eukaryotic Cells Have Carbohydrates
                              11:11
                              Eukaryotic Plasma Membranes Contain Sterols
                              12:08
                              Prokaryotic Plasma Membranes Consist Mostly of Phospholipids and Proteins
                              12:26
                              Example 1
                              12:41
                              Example 2
                              13:30
                              Example 3
                              15:02
                              Antibody & Antigen Recognition

                              15m 50s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Finding and Cell Signaling
                              0:22
                              Ligand Binding
                              1:00
                              Ligand Binds
                              1:01
                              Binding Site is Complementary to the Ligand
                              1:30
                              Interaction Between Ligand and Binding Site is Specific
                              2:39
                              Induced Fit
                              3:24
                              Ligand Binding Illustration 1
                              3:44
                              Ligand Binding Illustration 2
                              4:21
                              Antibody Structure
                              4:44
                              Antigen-Antibody Specificity
                              5:40
                              Antigen-Antibody Reaction
                              6:27
                              Example 1
                              10:10
                              Example 2
                              11:54
                              Example 3
                              13:29
                              Microbial Metabolism

                              21m 44s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Organisms and Carbon
                              0:20
                              Autotrophs
                              0:40
                              Heterotrophs
                              1:12
                              Organisms and Energy
                              2:07
                              Metabolism
                              3:19
                              Metabolism
                              3:26
                              Catabolism
                              3:53
                              Anabolism
                              4:15
                              Cellular Respiration
                              4:56
                              Aerobic Respiration
                              5:47
                              Anaerobic Respiration
                              6:13
                              Glucose
                              6:41
                              Most Important Carbohydrate
                              6:42
                              Three Major Outcomes
                              7:14
                              Stored
                              7:21
                              Oxidized via Glycolysis
                              7:22
                              Oxidized via the Pentose Phosphate
                              7:50
                              Outcomes of Glucose I
                              8:37
                              Outcomes of Glucose II
                              10:21
                              Overview of Aerobic Metabolism
                              11:50
                              Glycolysis
                              12:01
                              Citric Acid Cycle
                              12:05
                              Oxidative Phosphorylation
                              12:13
                              Formula
                              12:17
                              Aerobic Metabolism
                              12:28
                              Respiration and Fermentation
                              13:52
                              Carbohydrate Catabolism
                              15:00
                              Overview of Anaerobic Metabolism
                              15:59
                              Energy in Glucose is Released Without the Presence of Oxygen
                              16:00
                              Lactic Acid
                              16:08
                              ATP Production Requirements
                              17:13
                              Energy Sources
                              17:22
                              Electron Carriers
                              17:41
                              Final Electron Acceptors
                              17:49
                              Example 1
                              18:09
                              Example 2
                              18:41
                              Example 3
                              20:13
                              Microbial Genetics

                              39m 49s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              What is a Gene?
                              0:39
                              A Portion of the Chromosome That Determines or Affects a Single Character or Phenotype
                              0:51
                              Biochemical Definition of a Gene
                              0:57
                              Original Definition: One Gene-One Polypeptide
                              1:20
                              What is a Gene?
                              1:48
                              Regulatory Sequence
                              1:50
                              Genetic Code
                              2:44
                              Transcription and Replication
                              3:56
                              Replication of Bacterial DNA
                              5:05
                              Copy Both Sides of DNA Strand
                              5:20
                              DNA Transcription
                              5:53
                              DNA is Transcribed to Make RNA
                              6:18
                              RNA Polymerase Binds to the Promoter Sequence
                              6:24
                              Direction
                              6:29
                              Transcription Stops When It Reaches the Terminator Sequence
                              6:33
                              Bacterial Transcription
                              6:39
                              Transcription
                              6:46
                              No Nucleus
                              6:52
                              Translation
                              7:51
                              mRNA is Translated In Codons
                              8:11
                              Translation of mRNA Begins at the Start Codon
                              8:18
                              Translation Ends at Nonsense Codon
                              8:22
                              Gene Regulation
                              8:34
                              Constitutive Genes Are Expressed at a Fixed Rate
                              8:43
                              Other Genes Are Expressed Only as Needed
                              8:58
                              Regulation of Transcription
                              9:11
                              Repression
                              10:16
                              Induction
                              11:04
                              Germline Mutation
                              12:09
                              Evolutionary Biology
                              12:32
                              Molecular Biology
                              13:48
                              Mutations
                              14:34
                              Random and Rare
                              14:36
                              Can Be Beneficial or Neutral
                              14:46
                              Not All Mutations Matter
                              14:58
                              Somatic Mutations
                              15:20
                              Germline Mutations
                              16:30
                              Causes of Mutations
                              16:44
                              DNA Fails to Copy Accurately
                              16:48
                              External Influences Can Create Mutations
                              17:21
                              Types of Mutations
                              18:14
                              Substitution
                              18:18
                              Examples of Substitutions
                              18:29
                              Silent Mutations
                              19:56
                              Insertion
                              20:39
                              Deletion
                              20:51
                              Frame Shift
                              21:12
                              Bacterial Gene Recombination
                              22:16
                              Vertical Gene Transfer
                              22:57
                              Horizontal Gene Transfer
                              23:16
                              Genetic Recombination
                              23:46
                              Exchange of Genes Between Two DNA Molecules
                              23:47
                              Crossing Over Occurs When Two Chromosomes Break and Rejoin
                              23:52
                              Recipient Chromosome Contains New DNA
                              23:57
                              Bacterial Recombination
                              24:51
                              Bacterial Transformation
                              25:53
                              Conjugation in E. Coli
                              28:36
                              Transduction by a Bacteriophage
                              30:04
                              Plasmids
                              31:53
                              What are Plasmids?
                              32:00
                              F-Factor
                              32:14
                              Other Plasmids Encode for Proteins That Enhance the Pathogenicity of a Bacterium
                              32:39
                              Dissimilation Plasmids
                              33:24
                              R Factors
                              33:44
                              R-Factor, A Type of Plasmid
                              33:53
                              Transposons
                              35:04
                              Move From One Region of DNA to Another
                              35:29
                              Contain Insertion Sequences for Cutting and Resealing DNA (Tansposase)
                              35:34
                              Example 1
                              36:14
                              Example 2
                              37:34
                              Example 3
                              38:15
                              Section 3: Virus Biology
                              Viral Structure, Genome, & Replication

                              16m 50s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Medical Virology
                              0:11
                              Viral Structure
                              1:37
                              Viral Genome
                              1:55
                              What is a Virus?
                              2:09
                              Smaller
                              2:15
                              DNA or RNA with no Nucleus
                              2:34
                              Classification of Viruses
                              3:03
                              Type and Confirmation of Genomic Nucleic Acid
                              3:07
                              Viral Morphology
                              3:19
                              Viral Structure
                              3:54
                              Virion
                              3:58
                              Envelope
                              4:29
                              Capsid
                              5:39
                              Nucleocapsid
                              5:55
                              Viral Genome - Composition
                              6:27
                              Viral Genome
                              6:31
                              DNA vs. RNA Structure
                              6:42
                              RNA
                              7:49
                              Pathogenicity & Virulence
                              7:42
                              DNA
                              8:06
                              Viral Genome - Shape
                              8:36
                              Segmented
                              8:40
                              Non-segmented
                              9:22
                              Changes in the Viral Genome
                              9:36
                              Genetic Recombination
                              9:56
                              Reassortment
                              10:26
                              Changes in the Viral Genome
                              11:16
                              Quasi-species
                              11:24
                              Ebola Virus
                              11:58
                              Example 1
                              12:33
                              Example 2
                              13:42
                              Example 3
                              15:13
                              Viral Entry Into a Cell & Transmission

                              12m 31s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Medical Virology
                              0:27
                              Viral Entry Into a Cell
                              0:30
                              Viral Transmission
                              0:39
                              Viral Entry into Cells
                              0:53
                              Attachment
                              0:58
                              Membrane Fusion
                              1:29
                              Pre Formation
                              1:56
                              Penetration
                              2:12
                              Transmission of Viruses
                              2:34
                              Aerosol
                              2:51
                              Contaminated Food
                              3:19
                              Arthropods
                              4:01
                              Sexual Contact
                              5:06
                              Organ and Tissue Transplant
                              5:22
                              Site of Virus Entry
                              6:17
                              Respiratory Tract
                              6:37
                              GI Tract
                              7:08
                              Urethra, Vagina, Anus
                              7:34
                              Skin
                              7:42
                              Conjunctiva
                              7:45
                              Type of Cell Best Suited for Virus
                              7:57
                              Example 1
                              9:23
                              Example 2
                              10:13
                              Medically Important Viruses

                              24m 41s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Medical Virology
                              0:41
                              Viruses We Will Study
                              1:00
                              How the Viruses Differs
                              1:10
                              Medically-Important Viruses
                              1:23
                              Selected Viruses of Medical Importance
                              2:55
                              Herpesviridae, Simplevirus
                              2:59
                              Herpes Virus
                              4:09
                              Papillomaviridae, Alphapapillomavirus
                              4:47
                              Papilloma Virus
                              5:27
                              Reoviridae, Rotavirus
                              6:57
                              Rotavirus
                              7:58
                              Paramyxovirinae, Morbilivirus
                              9:04
                              Measles Virus
                              10:19
                              Orthomyxoviridae (Influenza Virus)
                              10:58
                              Influenza Virus - Antigenic Drift
                              12:52
                              Influenza Virus - Antigenic Shift
                              15:19
                              Medically-Important Viruses
                              18:39
                              Avian Influenza
                              18:41
                              Example 1
                              20:19
                              Example 2
                              21:50
                              Example 3
                              23:01
                              Section 4: Classification of Microbes
                              Overall Classification of Microbes

                              15m 51s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              What is Taxonomy?
                              0:18
                              Science of Classifying Organisms
                              0:21
                              Universal Names Used by All Countries
                              1:11
                              Reference for Identifying Organisms
                              1:19
                              Binomial Nomenclature
                              1:28
                              Systematics or Phylogeny
                              2:11
                              Phylogeny
                              2:12
                              Like Reading a Family Tree
                              2:28
                              Root of the Tree
                              2:33
                              Moving Forward in Time
                              2:49
                              Clade
                              3:01
                              Ancestors and Lineage
                              3:39
                              Taxonomic Hierarchy
                              4:17
                              Genus and Species
                              4:28
                              Classification Changes
                              4:38
                              History of Microbial Taxonomy
                              4:51
                              Discovery of Microscope
                              5:09
                              Kingdoms Plantae and Animalia
                              5:33
                              Smallpox Vaccine
                              5:42
                              Bacteria and Fungi
                              6:11
                              Kingdom Portista
                              6:24
                              Prokaryotes Introduced as a New Kingdom
                              6:57
                              Definition of Prokaryote
                              7:17
                              Kingdom Fungi
                              7:33
                              Kingdom Prokaryote
                              7:40
                              Two Types of Prokaryotic Cells
                              7:48
                              Using Molecular Techniques to Classify
                              7:58
                              Classify Microbes
                              8:24
                              Three Domain System of Classification
                              9:21
                              Classification Criteria
                              9:29
                              Physiology
                              9:58
                              Ecology
                              10:06
                              Behavior
                              10:27
                              Morphology
                              10:54
                              Molecular Evidence (RNA)
                              11:11
                              Three Domains of Life
                              11:39
                              Eukaryotes
                              11:46
                              Prokaryotes
                              11:48
                              Archaea
                              11:54
                              Example 1
                              12:13
                              Example 2
                              13:15
                              Prokaryotes: Bacteria & Archaea

                              12m 14s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Classification of Prokaryotes
                              0:45
                              Lack of Nucleus
                              0:51
                              Culture
                              1:05
                              Clone
                              1:19
                              Strain
                              1:37
                              Phylogenetic Relationship
                              2:02
                              Archaea
                              3:53
                              Two Distinct Groups: Archaea and Bacteria
                              4:05
                              Archaea Lived in High Temperatures
                              4:29
                              Habitats
                              4:51
                              Only Habitants to Live in Extreme Habitats
                              5:24
                              New Research Shoes Archaeans are Abundant in the Open Sea
                              5:40
                              Archaea Morphology
                              5:59
                              Basic Archaeal Structure: Cytoplasm, Cell Membrane, and Cell Wall
                              6:08
                              Archaeal Cell Membranes
                              6:13
                              Plasmid
                              7:11
                              Archaeal Ribosomes
                              7:29
                              Example 1
                              8:20
                              Example 2
                              11:01
                              Section 5: The Immune System
                              The Immune System

                              20m 18s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Immune System Introduction
                              0:28
                              Body Defends Itself from Anything Foreign
                              0:49
                              What Immunity Constitutes
                              1:13
                              Immune Responses Can be Classified as Nonspecific or Specific
                              1:27
                              Nonspecific Immune Response
                              1:54
                              Specific Immune Response
                              2:22
                              Physiological Barriers
                              2:49
                              The Immune System
                              3:18
                              Innate Immune Response
                              3:20
                              Adaptive Immune Response
                              3:42
                              Immunity
                              4:47
                              Immunology
                              5:32
                              Immunity
                              5:39
                              Immune System
                              6:21
                              Barriers to Infection - Mechanical
                              6:41
                              Physical Barriers
                              6:54
                              Epithelial Surfaces
                              8:31
                              Mucosal Surfaces
                              9:54
                              Muco-ciliary Escalator
                              10:40
                              Barriers to Infection - Chemical
                              11:25
                              Enzymes
                              11:33
                              pH
                              12:29
                              Lung
                              13:48
                              Physiological Barriers
                              14:56
                              The Immune System
                              16:52
                              Example 1
                              17:15
                              The Complement System

                              16m 53s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              What is Complement?
                              0:37
                              Proteins
                              0:40
                              Synthesized by Different Cell Types
                              1:01
                              Complement System
                              1:14
                              Destroy Pathogens Directly
                              1:51
                              Activate Other Components of the Immune Response
                              2:02
                              Collaborate with Other Components of the Immune Response
                              2:12
                              Classical Pathway
                              2:28
                              Lection Pathway
                              3:29
                              Alternative Pathway
                              3:52
                              Integral Protein Types That Function in Cell-Cell Interaction
                              4:08
                              Function of the Complement System
                              4:49
                              Complement is Activated Upon Infection
                              4:50
                              Complement Functions Like Enzymes
                              6:16
                              Enzyme Activation
                              6:37
                              Function of the Complement System
                              7:43
                              Complements the Ability of Antibodies and Phagocytic Cells to Identify and Remove Foreign Pathogens
                              7:49
                              Amplification
                              8:50
                              Activation of the Complement System
                              9:17
                              Cytolysis
                              9:27
                              Chemotaxis
                              9:39
                              Opsonization
                              10:41
                              Anaphylatoxins
                              11:16
                              Complement and Membrane Attack Complex
                              12:10
                              The Membrane Attached Complex
                              12:49
                              Pathways of Complement Activation
                              13:07
                              Classical
                              13:43
                              Lectin
                              13:54
                              Alternative
                              14:07
                              Example 1
                              14:33
                              Example 2
                              15:23
                              Example 3
                              16:11
                              Adaptive Immunity

                              31m 10s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              What is Adaptive Immunity?
                              0:27
                              Primary Immune Response
                              0:41
                              Initiated by a Dendritic Cell That Ingested a Pathogen
                              1:24
                              Naïve B Cells are Stimulated to Proliferate and Differentiate in Specific Response to the Pathogen
                              1:49
                              Process of Adaptive Immunity
                              2:28
                              Humoral Immunity
                              3:03
                              Development of Acquired Immune Cells
                              3:41
                              The B Cell
                              4:50
                              Produced in the Bone Marrow
                              4:52
                              Outer Surface Contains a Specialized B Cell Receptor
                              5:01
                              Initial Activation
                              5:55
                              Secondary Activation
                              6:15
                              Hallmarks of Humoral Immunity
                              6:23
                              B Lymphocyte is the Central Cell
                              6:51
                              Antibody-mediated
                              6:58
                              Highly Complex
                              7:03
                              Step 1: Antigen Recognition
                              7:18
                              B Cells Recognize Extracellular Antigenics
                              7:22
                              Antigens on Pathogen Surfaces
                              7:54
                              Step 2: Clonal Expansion
                              10:43
                              B Cell Divides
                              10:48
                              Clone
                              11:46
                              Maturation of B Cells
                              12:33
                              Step 3: Differentiation
                              13:46
                              B Cells Differentiate Into Plasma Cells
                              13:49
                              Plasma Cell Produces and Secrets Antibodies Specific to the Origin Antigen
                              14:00
                              Produce and Secrete Abs Specific to the Original Antigen
                              15:38
                              Antigen Presenting Cells Show Protein Antigens to Helper T Cells
                              15:55
                              Step 4: Antigen Elimination
                              16:30
                              Newly-Manufactured Antibodies Attach to the Antigen
                              16:36
                              Termination of the Humoral Immune Response
                              17:30
                              Step 5: Immune Memory
                              18:32
                              Memory B Cells Reside in Bone Marrow
                              18:53
                              High-Affinity Immunoglobulins
                              19:15
                              Survive for Years
                              20:15
                              Respond Rapidly When the Antigen is Seen Again
                              20:39
                              Antibodies
                              22:34
                              Classes - IgM
                              22:41
                              Example 1
                              24:51
                              Example 2
                              26:54
                              Example 3
                              28:03
                              Antibody & Antigen Interactions

                              41m 22s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Antibody-Antigen
                              0:22
                              Where Do Antigens-Antibodies Belong?
                              0:57
                              What is an Antibody?
                              1:12
                              Immunoglobulin
                              1:17
                              Definition of Antibody
                              1:32
                              Each Antigen is Specific to an Antigen
                              1:58
                              Antigen Binds to an Antigen
                              2:44
                              Produced by Plasma Cells
                              3:18
                              Antibody Structure
                              3:55
                              Paratope
                              4:17
                              Hinge Region
                              4:53
                              Fragment Crystallizable
                              5:44
                              Antibody Function
                              6:21
                              Recognizes and Captures Foreign Proteins and Molecules
                              6:41
                              Activates Complement
                              6:52
                              Binds to Immune Cells to Activate Their Specific Functions
                              7:55
                              The Antibody Isotypes
                              9:25
                              IgM
                              9:37
                              IgG
                              12:36
                              IgD
                              14:01
                              IgA
                              14:27
                              IgE
                              14:45
                              What is an Antigen?
                              15:18
                              An Antigen is to Provoke an Immune Response
                              15:53
                              Exogenous
                              16:43
                              Endogenous
                              17:16
                              Autogenous
                              18:10
                              Antigen-Antibody Reaction
                              19:08
                              Affinity
                              19:33
                              Avidity
                              19:57
                              Specificity
                              21:02
                              Cross Reactivity
                              21:31
                              Foreignness
                              22:17
                              Size
                              24:32
                              What Determines Antigenicity?
                              25:04
                              Antigenicity Definition
                              25:13
                              Conformation
                              25:29
                              Composition
                              26:02
                              Bacterial Components
                              26:27
                              Antigenic Determinants: Innate Immunity
                              26:53
                              Example 1
                              30:41
                              Example 2
                              33:15
                              Example 3
                              36:37
                              Tumor Immunology

                              33m 16s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Antibodies Surrounding Tumor
                              0:40
                              Introduction to Tumor Immunology
                              1:22
                              Human Papilloma
                              1:41
                              Hepatitis B
                              2:26
                              Helicobacter Pylori
                              2:47
                              Immunology
                              4:05
                              Overview of Tumor Immunology
                              4:17
                              Immune Surveillance Theory
                              4:18
                              Malignant Transformation
                              4:34
                              Immune Reactivity to Tumors
                              4:37
                              Tumor Antigens
                              4:43
                              Tumor Immunotherapies
                              4:49
                              Inflammation and Cancer
                              4:53
                              Immune Surveillance Theory and Escape
                              4:59
                              Amount of Antigen Expressed is Too Low
                              5:51
                              Tumor Sheds Antigens That Block Antibodies and T-Cells from binding to the Tumor
                              6:01
                              Tumor Does Not Express Immunogenic Antigens
                              6:15
                              Tumor Does Not Express MHC Antigens
                              6:32
                              Tumor May Secrete Immunosuppressive
                              6:51
                              Hallmark of a Cancer Cell is Proliferation That is Dysregulated
                              7:12
                              Malignant Transformation
                              7:39
                              One Way to Cause Growth Regulations
                              8:24
                              Mutations Can Alter the Cellular Machinery Leading to Up Regulation of Oncogenes
                              8:45
                              Mutations Can Alter the Cellular Machinery Leading to Down Regulation of Tumor Suppressor Genes
                              9:15
                              Tumor Growth Over Time
                              9:42
                              Malignant Transformation
                              10:46
                              Benign
                              11:20
                              Malignant
                              11:37
                              Progression of Benign to Malignant
                              12:35
                              Micro-Induced Carcinogenesis
                              13:40
                              Initiation Promotion Progression Model
                              14:28
                              Examples of Malignant Transformation
                              14:53
                              Tumor Antigens
                              15:46
                              Tumor Must Express Antigens That the Immune System Recognizes as Foreign
                              16:16
                              Immune Reactivity to Tumors
                              16:40
                              Tumor Antigens
                              17:07
                              Tumor Immunotherapies
                              17:15
                              Tumorigenesis Secretes Chemical Signals That Change Gene Expression
                              17:25
                              Gene Expression Leads To The Following
                              17:30
                              Tumors in an Immunosuppressed Host
                              18:48
                              HIV and AIDS
                              19:13
                              Transplant Patients
                              19:55
                              Epstein-Barr Virus
                              20:19
                              Malaria
                              20:27
                              Tumor Immunotherapies
                              20:45
                              Active Therapy
                              21:01
                              Passive Therapy
                              22:02
                              Inflammation and Cancer
                              24:05
                              Chronic Inflammation
                              24:18
                              Inflammation as a Response to Cancer
                              25:23
                              Neoplastic Cells Induce an Inflammatory Immune System
                              25:34
                              Bacteria, Inflammation, and Cancer
                              25:59
                              Example 1
                              27:46
                              Example 2
                              29:21
                              Example 3
                              30:25
                              Example 4
                              31:28
                              Cell Mediated Immunity

                              57m 13s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Adaptive Immunity
                              0:43
                              Cell-Mediated Immunity
                              1:47
                              Lymphocyte T Cell
                              1:56
                              Antigen-Presenting Cells
                              2:15
                              Subset of T Cells
                              2:22
                              Immune Tolerance
                              2:31
                              Hallmarks of Cell-Mediated Immunity
                              3:02
                              Primary Actor is the T Lymphocyte
                              3:06
                              Directed at Pathogens That Survive in Phagocytes
                              3:12
                              Based on Activation
                              3:23
                              Induce Apoptosis in Cells Displaying Epitopes of Foreign Antigens
                              4:25
                              Activates Macrophages and Natural Killer Cells
                              6:34
                              Stimulates Cells to Secrete Cytokines That Signal Other Cells of the Humoral and Innate Immune Response
                              6:47
                              Responds to Intracellular Antigens
                              7:16
                              Requires Direct, Cell-to-Cell Contact
                              7:24
                              The T-Cell
                              7:51
                              Mature in the Thymus
                              7:58
                              Presence of the T-Cell Receptor
                              8:04
                              Important Components
                              8:35
                              Antigen-Presenting Cell
                              9:36
                              Type of Leukocyte
                              11:17
                              Responsible for the Immune Responses That Lead to the Following
                              11:25
                              T-Cell Maturation
                              13:34
                              Thymocyte
                              13:42
                              Thymopoiesis
                              13:59
                              Thymus Conducts a Testing Process of Positive and Negative Selection
                              14:15
                              Somatic Gene Rearrangement
                              15:49
                              Infinite Number of Configurations That Create TCRs
                              17:00
                              Cluster of Differentiation (CD)
                              17:27
                              Function
                              18:23
                              Immuno-Phenotyping
                              19:18
                              Cluster of Differentiation (CD)
                              19:34
                              Nomenclature
                              19:40
                              Example
                              20:01
                              Antigen-Presenting Cells
                              20:50
                              Antigen Presentation
                              21:24
                              Antigen-Presenting Cells
                              21:32
                              Direct Presentation
                              21:52
                              Cross-Presentation
                              22:37
                              Cross-Dressing
                              23:04
                              Professional
                              23:24
                              Others
                              23:55
                              Contact Between an APC and TCR Stimulates Important Signaling Events
                              25:20
                              T-Cell Subset: T-Helper Cells
                              25:51
                              Th1
                              27:05
                              Th2
                              28:48
                              Th17
                              29:43
                              T-Cell Subset: Cytotoxic (Killer) T-Cells
                              31:26
                              CD8+ Cells
                              31:28
                              Target Cells with Antigen
                              31:50
                              T-Cell Subset: Cytotoxic (Killer) T-Cells
                              32:55
                              Perforin
                              33:30
                              Granzyme
                              34:07
                              Pharmaceuticals are Designed to Alter T-Cell Responses
                              35:00
                              T-Cell Subset: Regulatory T-Cells
                              37:01
                              Suppress Activation of the Immune System
                              37:40
                              Functions
                              38:36
                              T-Cell Subset: Regulatory T-Cells
                              39:45
                              Commensal Bacteria
                              39:51
                              Graft/ Transplant
                              41:02
                              Pregnancy
                              41:41
                              Tumors
                              41:47
                              Cytokines
                              42:46
                              Types of Cytokines
                              42:57
                              Chemical Messengers
                              43:19
                              Functional Classes of Cytokines
                              43:38
                              Chemokines
                              47:17
                              Chemotaxis
                              47:20
                              Inflammation
                              48:54
                              Homeostatic
                              49:10
                              Antiviral Response
                              49:23
                              Designation
                              49:27
                              Pulling It All Together
                              49:40
                              Example 1
                              51:40
                              Example 2
                              52:51
                              Example 3
                              54:56
                              Section 6: The Bacteria
                              Bacterial Cell Wall

                              18m 38s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Overview
                              0:45
                              Gram Negative and Positive Bacteria
                              1:17
                              Bacteria Without Cell Walls
                              1:38
                              Recall the Prototype Cell
                              1:52
                              Plasma Membrane
                              2:15
                              Cytoplasm
                              2:21
                              Nucleus
                              2:26
                              Cell Wall Principles
                              2:41
                              Protects Bacteria
                              2:50
                              Survive in Fluid Environments
                              3:08
                              Attack by Antibiotics
                              4:26
                              Source of Identification
                              4:40
                              Peptidoglycan
                              4:47
                              Murein
                              5:10
                              Protects the Plasma Membrane
                              5:18
                              Gram Staining
                              5:42
                              Gram Positive and Gram Negative
                              5:55
                              Gram Positive Bacterial Cell Wall
                              8:26
                              Thick Structure
                              8:45
                              Gram Staining
                              8:52
                              Teichoic Acids in Cell Wall
                              9:06
                              Gram Positive Streptococci
                              9:21
                              Gram Negative Bacterial Cell Wall
                              9:57
                              Allows More Complexity
                              10:15
                              Outer Membrane Provides Barrier to Certain Antibiotics
                              11:00
                              Outer Membrane Contains Lipid A
                              11:34
                              The Gram Stain
                              12:36
                              Hans Christian Gram Invented a Stain to Visualize Bacteria
                              12:52
                              Gram Positive Bacteria
                              13:51
                              Gram Negative Bacteria
                              14:27
                              Example 1
                              14:55
                              Example 2
                              15:49
                              Bacterial Morphology & Shape

                              15m 4s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Bacteria Morphology and Shape
                              0:28
                              Classification of Bacteria
                              0:50
                              Based on Several Major Properties
                              0:53
                              Taxonomy Principles Do Not Quite Fit for Bacteria
                              1:21
                              Variation in Shape and Distribution
                              3:00
                              Cocci
                              3:14
                              Bacilli
                              4:00
                              Budding and Appendaged Bacteria
                              4:27
                              Others
                              4:35
                              Bacterial Distribution
                              4:51
                              Shapes of Bacteria
                              5:45
                              Bacterial Shapes
                              6:40
                              Three Basic Shapes
                              6:41
                              Variation in Shapes
                              7:12
                              Clusters
                              7:31
                              Clusters Example
                              7:50
                              Streptococcus Pneumoniae
                              8:18
                              Bacterial Shapes
                              8:56
                              Streptococci
                              9:00
                              Staphylococci
                              9:12
                              Comma Shaped
                              10:28
                              Vibrios
                              10:37
                              Spirilla
                              11:04
                              Spirochetes
                              11:25
                              Example 1
                              11:38
                              Example 2
                              12:39
                              Example 3
                              13:24
                              Bacterial Metabolic Behavior

                              23m 50s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Energy Metabolism
                              0:40
                              Classification of Bacteria
                              1:48
                              Metabolic Behavior
                              1:51
                              Some Organisms are Anaerobic
                              1:57
                              Organisms and Carbon
                              2:07
                              Autotrophs
                              2:10
                              Heterotrophs
                              2:43
                              Organisms and Energy
                              3:28
                              Metabolism
                              4:13
                              Metabolism
                              4:14
                              Catabolism
                              4:50
                              Anabolism
                              5:04
                              Cellular Respiration
                              5:49
                              Aerobic Respiration
                              6:55
                              Anaerobic Respiration
                              7:13
                              Glucose
                              7:41
                              Energy-Currency Molecule for Autotrophs and Heterotrophs
                              7:42
                              Three Major Outcomes
                              7:56
                              Outcomes of Glucose
                              8:18
                              Outcomes of Glucose and Pyruvate
                              9:07
                              Overview of Aerobic Metabolism
                              11:19
                              Glycolysis
                              11:25
                              Citric Acid Cycle
                              11:28
                              Oxidative Phosphorylation
                              11:30
                              Aerobic Metabolism
                              11:51
                              Respiration and Fermentation
                              13:18
                              Carbohydrate Catabolism
                              14:35
                              Overview of Anaerobic Metabolism
                              15:37
                              Energy in Glucose is Released Without the Presence of Oxygen
                              15:48
                              Lactic Acid
                              15:46
                              Types of Fermentation
                              16:16
                              Lactic Acid Fermentation
                              16:20
                              Alcohol Fermentation
                              16:27
                              Alcohol Fermentation
                              16:57
                              Any Spoilage of Food by Microorganisms
                              17:08
                              Any Process that Produces Alcoholic Beverages
                              17:14
                              Any Large-Scale Microbial Process Occurring With or Without Air
                              17:25
                              Yeast and Other Microorganisms Ferment Glucose to Ethanol
                              17:39
                              Two Step Process
                              18:07
                              Lactic Acid Fermentation
                              18:34
                              Classic Anaerobic Metabolism
                              18:35
                              Releases Energy from Oxidation of Organic Molecules
                              18:44
                              End Products of Fermentation
                              19:05
                              Ethanol, Acetic Acid, Lactic Acid
                              19:22
                              Propionin Acid and Carbon Dioxide, Acetone, Glycerol, Citric Acid, Sorbose
                              20:02
                              Example 1
                              20:29
                              Example 2
                              21:43
                              Example 3
                              22:55
                              Bacterial Infection Patterns

                              41m 12s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              'Hunting the Nightmare Bacteria'
                              0:42
                              Classification of Bacteria
                              2:13
                              Bacterial Pathogenesis
                              2:31
                              First Type of Immunity: Innate Immune System
                              2:49
                              Complement System
                              3:00
                              Innate Immune Cells: Phagocytosis
                              3:10
                              Cytokine Production and Epitopes
                              3:29
                              Location of Bacteria Infections
                              4:05
                              Steps of Bacterial Infection
                              5:25
                              Entry Into Host
                              5:30
                              Adherence to Host Tissue
                              5:53
                              Colonization
                              5:58
                              Overcome a Host's Defense
                              6:02
                              Hosts' Immune Response
                              6:10
                              Damage the Host Tissues
                              6:17
                              Progression or Recovery
                              6:25
                              Portals of Entry
                              6:35
                              The Skin
                              7:18
                              Viral and Bacterial Infection of Respiratory
                              7:46
                              Bacteria Entry
                              8:00
                              Some Bacteria Produce Toxins and Enzymes
                              8:28
                              Immune Response is Disease Causing Part of Bacterial Infection
                              8:46
                              Infection of Intestinal Epithelium
                              8:59
                              Shigella
                              9:00
                              Salmonella
                              10:16
                              Numbers of Invading Bacteria
                              11:05
                              Virulence
                              11:30
                              Potency
                              12:07
                              Virulence of Bacillus Anthracis
                              12:33
                              Adherence of Bacteria to Host Tissue
                              13:49
                              Adhesins or Ligands
                              14:10
                              Glycocalyx
                              14:26
                              Fimbriae
                              14:32
                              M Protein
                              14:53
                              Adherence
                              15:07
                              Adhesins or Ligands
                              15:10
                              E. coli Bacteria
                              15:53
                              Bacteria Adhering to Human Skin
                              16:17
                              Group A Beta-Hemolytic Streptococci
                              16:28
                              Bacterial Penetration of Host Defenses
                              16:42
                              Capsules
                              16:57
                              Cell Wall Components
                              17:03
                              Enzymes
                              17:18
                              Antigenic Variation
                              17:27
                              Penetration into Host Cell Cytoskeleton
                              17:57
                              Capsules
                              18:06
                              Capsule
                              18:07
                              Glycocalyx
                              18:19
                              Functions to Impair Phagocytosis
                              18:58
                              Host Can However Develop Antibodies Against the Capsule
                              19:07
                              Streptococcus Pneumoniae
                              19:28
                              Cell Wall Components
                              20:06
                              M Protein
                              20:18
                              Neisseria Gonorrhea
                              20:49
                              Fimbriae
                              20:57
                              Bacterial Enzymes
                              21:23
                              Coagulase
                              22:08
                              Hyalurpnidase
                              22:09
                              Collagenase
                              22:13
                              IgA Proteases
                              22:19
                              Penetration
                              22:44
                              Invasins
                              22:59
                              Invasins Cause Host Cell Membrane to Ruffle
                              23:12
                              Shigella and Listeria
                              23:32
                              Bacterial Damage to Host Cells
                              23:50
                              Production of Toxins
                              24:11
                              Types of Toxins
                              24:56
                              Production of Toxins
                              25:00
                              Toxin
                              25:08
                              Toxigenicity
                              25:21
                              Toxemia
                              25:25
                              Toxoid
                              25:30
                              Antitoxin
                              25:38
                              Exotoxin
                              25:44
                              Produced Inside Some Bacteria
                              25:55
                              Released When Bacteria Undergoes Lysis
                              26:06
                              Proteins and Enzymes That Catalyze Certain Biochemical Reactions
                              26:39
                              Bacteria That Produce Exotoxins Can be Gram + or Gram -
                              26:53
                              Exotoxins Are Soluble in Body Fluids
                              27:04
                              Some Diseases Caused by Their Exotoxins
                              27:13
                              Exotoxin Examples
                              27:35
                              Action of A-B Exotoxin
                              28:11
                              Endotoxin
                              29:12
                              Endotoxin Differ from Extoxin in Several Ways
                              29:21
                              Endotoxins are Released When Gram - is Liberated
                              30:24
                              Antibiotics Used to Treat Gem
                              30:32
                              Endotoxins Stimulate Macrophages to Release High Concentrations of Cytokines
                              30:59
                              Endotoxins and the Pyrogenic Response
                              31:17
                              Example Endotoxins
                              32:08
                              Salmonella Typhi
                              32:15
                              Neisseria Meningitidis
                              32:22
                              Proteus Spp
                              32:35
                              Steps of Bacterial Infection
                              32:42
                              Bacterial Penetration of Host Defenses
                              33:59
                              Example 1
                              34:41
                              Example 2
                              37:25
                              Example 3
                              39:39
                              Bacterial Adaptation to Environment

                              20m 50s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Bacterial Adaptation
                              0:13
                              Varied Tissues Within Human Host
                              0:36
                              Variable Levels of Oxygenation Both Inside and Outside of Host
                              0:54
                              Variable Levels of Moisture Both Inside and Outside Host
                              1:10
                              Survive Various Antibiotic and Other Types of Treatment
                              1:23
                              Variable Oxygen Environments
                              1:58
                              Bacterial Endospores
                              3:33
                              Clostridium Botulinum
                              4:40
                              Bacillus Anthracis
                              4:48
                              Clostridium Tetani
                              4:50
                              Botulism: Neurotoxin
                              5:10
                              Clostridium Botulinum
                              6:29
                              Gram Positive Rod-Shaped Bacteria That are Strictly Anaerobic
                              6:58
                              Produce Spores
                              7:10
                              Produces Paralysis
                              7:49
                              Toxin Can be Destroyed by Heating Food to 80 Degrees Celsius
                              7:55
                              Bacillus Anthracis
                              8:47
                              Produce Spores
                              9:08
                              Anthrax is Mostly a Disease of Herbivores
                              9:20
                              Weaponized Anthrax is Primarily Inhalation Form
                              10:11
                              Clostridium Tetani
                              11:50
                              Spores are Located in Solid and Can Colonize Gastrointestinal Tracts
                              12:14
                              Disease Uncommon
                              12:27
                              Toxin Produced During Growth Phase of Bacteria When Cell is Lysed
                              13:14
                              Toxin Blocks Release of GABA
                              13:56
                              Results in Paralysis
                              14:09
                              Example 1
                              15:38
                              Example 2
                              16:45
                              Example 3
                              18:01
                              Antigenic Composition of Bacteria

                              33m 8s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Bacteria as Antigens
                              1:04
                              Antigen-antibody Interaction
                              1:12
                              Bacterial Adaptations as Antigens
                              1:31
                              Cell Wall Components
                              1:44
                              Capsules as Antigens
                              1:50
                              Flagella as Antigens
                              1:58
                              Antigenic Variation
                              2:00
                              Bacterial Antigenicity and Vaccines
                              2:13
                              Antigen-Antibody Interaction
                              2:20
                              What are Antigens
                              2:25
                              Examples of Antigens
                              3:09
                              Bacteria as Antigens
                              4:33
                              Adaptation to the Human Host Environment
                              5:09
                              Pathogenic Agent
                              5:30
                              Criteria for Effective Antigenicity
                              6:02
                              Bacterial Adaptations That are Antigenic
                              7:36
                              Pila
                              7:45
                              Flagella as Antigens
                              7:57
                              Fimbriae
                              7:59
                              Capsules as Antigens
                              8:22
                              Peptidoglycan
                              8:33
                              S Proteins
                              8:45
                              M Protein and Lipid A
                              9:09
                              Cell Wall Components
                              9:47
                              Neisseria Gonorrhea
                              9:52
                              Fimbriae and Opa
                              10:03
                              After Attachment, Host Cell Takes Bacteria
                              10:22
                              Secretory Antibodies
                              10:38
                              Circulating Antibodies
                              10:58
                              Capsule
                              11:33
                              Neutralize the Virulence
                              12:39
                              Bacterial Capsules as Antigens
                              13:20
                              S. Pneumoniae
                              13:55
                              B. Anthracis
                              14:09
                              S. Pyogenes
                              14:38
                              Bacterial Antigenicity
                              15:30
                              Motility and Vibrio Cholerae
                              16:11
                              Flagella are Antigenic
                              16:20
                              Agglutinate or Immobilize Bacterial Cells
                              17:00
                              Antigenic Variation
                              17:49
                              Antigenic Variation Over Time
                              18:54
                              Antigenic Variation by Space and Time
                              22:12
                              Bacterial Antigenicity and Vaccines
                              24:02
                              Example 1
                              27:36
                              Example 2
                              31:24
                              Section 7: Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases
                              Epidemiology of Infectious Disease

                              15m 43s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Infectious Diseases: Extent of Problem
                              0:43
                              26% of Deaths Worldwide
                              1:21
                              Ebola Outbreak in Africa
                              1:50
                              Cholera in Haiti and South America
                              2:22
                              West Nile Virus Infections in U.S.
                              2:39
                              Worldwide Cholera Occurrence
                              3:03
                              Extent of Research
                              4:38
                              Importance to National Security
                              5:42
                              Bioterrorism Key Achievements
                              7:00
                              Smallpox
                              7:06
                              Anthrax
                              7:22
                              Botulinum
                              7:28
                              Ebola
                              7:52
                              Importance of Epidemiology
                              8:38
                              Scientific Study of Causes and Determinants of Disease
                              8:44
                              Study of Vector and Animal Host Biology
                              8:56
                              Patterns of Disease Transmission
                              9:39
                              Determine Disease Causation
                              10:31
                              Development of Vaccines
                              11:04
                              Development and Evaluation of Effective Treatments
                              11:55
                              Example 1
                              12:28
                              Human Host & Disease Transmission

                              56m 19s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Human Host and Disease Transmission
                              0:19
                              Discuss the Basis of Human Disease
                              0:27
                              Non-random Distribution of Disease
                              0:34
                              Ways Disease are Transmitted
                              0:44
                              Occurrence of Disease
                              1:09
                              Measures of Disease Transmission
                              1:19
                              Disease Outbreaks
                              1:23
                              Basis of Human Disease
                              1:39
                              How Human Disease Arise
                              1:43
                              Host Must be Susceptible
                              2:08
                              Capacity to Infect
                              2:32
                              Environment
                              2:53
                              Non-Random Distribution of Disease
                              3:27
                              Genetic Predisposition
                              3:34
                              Nutrition
                              4:16
                              Immune Status
                              4:24
                              Socio-Economic Status
                              4:40
                              Modes of Disease Transmission
                              5:46
                              Direct Transmission
                              5:54
                              Indirect Transmission
                              6:50
                              Example of Disease Transmission
                              8:30
                              HIV/ AIDS
                              8:34
                              Hepatitis A,B,C
                              10:10
                              Clinical and Subclinical Disease
                              12:42
                              Clinical Disease
                              12:49
                              Subclinical Disease
                              13:10
                              Non Clinical Disease
                              15:36
                              Carrier Status
                              17:48
                              Carrier Status Example: Typhoid Mary
                              18:33
                              Occurrence of Disease
                              20:18
                              Endemic
                              20:27
                              Epidemic
                              21:30
                              Pandemic
                              21:45
                              Epidemic of Obesity
                              22:22
                              Measures of Infectious Disease Transmission
                              23:45
                              Incubation Period
                              24:23
                              Epidemic Curve
                              27:44
                              Disease Outbreaks
                              28:37
                              One Exposure, Common Vehicle
                              28:43
                              Outbreak Analysis
                              32:14
                              Food Borne Illness
                              34:06
                              76 Million Cases of Food Borne Illness Per Year
                              34:07
                              Known Pathogens
                              35:08
                              62 Million Cases from Unknown Agents
                              35:23
                              Example of Food Outbreak: Salmonella Saintpaul, 2008
                              35:34
                              Distribution of Outbreak Strain of Salmonella Found on Tomatoes and/or Jalapeno Peppers
                              36:21
                              Number of Persons Infected with Salmonella Saintpaul
                              38:10
                              Clinical Features of Salmonella Infection
                              40:47
                              Diarrhea
                              41:06
                              Abdominal Cramps
                              41:11
                              Identified by Stool Sample Culture
                              41:19
                              Severe Infection
                              41:50
                              Case-Control Studies of Salmonella Saintpaul Infection
                              42:26
                              Description of Outbreak Source Investigation
                              45:02
                              Example 1
                              46:25
                              Example 2
                              50:43
                              Example 3
                              53:13
                              Difference Measures of Disease

                              39m 23s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Introduction
                              0:16
                              What is the Extent of Disease?
                              1:00
                              Who is at Risk for the Disease?
                              1:07
                              How is Disease Transmitted?
                              1:36
                              How is Disease Defined?
                              1:52
                              Counts
                              2:17
                              Assessment
                              2:32
                              Example of Tuberculosis Count
                              3:04
                              Counts of Influenza Positive Tests
                              4:02
                              Counts of AIDS Cases
                              5:58
                              Example of a Food Outbreak Investigation
                              8:01
                              Steps Public Health Investigators Follow to Determine Cause of Illness
                              8:24
                              Identifying the Source
                              8:39
                              Example
                              9:04
                              Potential Sources of Contamination
                              9:44
                              Production
                              9:55
                              Farms
                              10:14
                              Distribution
                              10:31
                              Retail Establishments
                              10:39
                              Restaurant Example
                              10:56
                              Food Borne Outbreak Investigation Steps
                              11:43
                              Determining if an Outbreak is Occurring
                              11:57
                              Defining Signs and Symptoms
                              12:07
                              Hypothesis
                              12:14
                              Collect Data and Test Hypothesis
                              12:38
                              Not Finding Associations
                              13:09
                              After Finding Pathogen, You Can Conduct Intervention to Remove Contaminated Food
                              13:45
                              Determine the Source
                              14:09
                              Clear Outbreak When All Contamination is Gone
                              14:30
                              Case Study: Norovirus Outbreak Michigan Jan-Feb, 2006
                              14:34
                              Norovirus
                              16:14
                              Infects All Ages
                              16:40
                              Cause Infection Throughout the Year But There's a Peak in Time
                              16:44
                              Recognizing Outbreaks of Norovisur Infection
                              16:51
                              Cases of Norovirus Over Time
                              18:42
                              Attack Rate
                              19:24
                              Definition
                              19:37
                              Restaurant Example
                              21:11
                              Attack Rate by 3 Hour Time Intervals
                              22:52
                              Patrons Who Became Ill
                              23:35
                              Case Control Analysis to Determine Food Source
                              24:21
                              Attack Rate
                              25:58
                              Food Outbreak Measures
                              26:16
                              Compute the Denominator
                              27:06
                              Compute Attack Rate During Certain Time Period
                              27:28
                              Construct Possible Hypotheses
                              28:14
                              Conduct Case-Control Analysis with Odds Ratio
                              29:37
                              Example 1
                              29:47
                              Example 2
                              34:55
                              Example 3
                              36:51
                              Section 8: Eukaryotes-structure, Function, Diversity, and Environmental Niche
                              Eukaryotic Microbes

                              20m 53s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Introduction to Eukaryotic Microbes
                              0:38
                              Helminths
                              0:57
                              Why are They Called Microorganisms
                              1:01
                              Parasites
                              1:25
                              Introduction to Cell Theory
                              2:03
                              Evolution of Multi-Cellularity
                              3:30
                              Prokaryotes Can Form into Colonies and Biofilms
                              3:42
                              Eukaryotic Cells Can Arrange Themselves Into Tissue
                              3:58
                              Multicellularity Evolved
                              5:03
                              Fossils of Bangiomorpha Pubescens
                              5:45
                              Timeline
                              6:45
                              Endosymbiosis
                              8:00
                              Ancestral Anaerobic Eukaryote
                              8:05
                              Aerobic Eukaryote
                              8:38
                              Photosynthetic Cyanobacterium
                              8:54
                              Photosynthetic Eukaryote
                              8:58
                              Phylogeny
                              9:24
                              Prokaryotes
                              9:34
                              Eukaryotes
                              9:39
                              Organization of Eukaryotic Cell
                              9:50
                              Level 1: Monomeric Units
                              10:13
                              Level 2: Macromolecules
                              10:16
                              Level 3: Supramolecular Complexes
                              10:37
                              Level 4: The Cell and Its Organelles
                              10:40
                              Eukaryotic Animal Cell
                              11:01
                              Nuclear Envelope
                              11:53
                              Plasma Membrane
                              11:58
                              Mitochondrion
                              12:15
                              Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
                              12:23
                              Ribosomes
                              12:51
                              Peroxisomes
                              13:00
                              Cytoskeleton
                              13:05
                              Lysosome
                              13:23
                              Golgi Complex Processes
                              13:27
                              Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
                              13:40
                              Eukaryotic Plant Cell
                              14:01
                              Cell Wall
                              14:29
                              Chloroplast
                              14:49
                              Starch Granule
                              15:06
                              Thylakoids
                              15:17
                              Golgi Complex, Cytoskeleton, Ribosomes
                              15:25
                              Nucleus, Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum, Nucleolus
                              15:33
                              Mitochondrion
                              15:39
                              Example 1
                              15:56
                              Example 2
                              18:44
                              Eukaryotes: Fungi, Part I

                              19m 45s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Introduction to Fungi
                              0:15
                              1.5 Million Different Species on Earth
                              0:17
                              Fungal Diseases
                              1:10
                              Fungi Live Outdoors and Indoors
                              1:17
                              Most Fungi Are Not Dangerous
                              1:30
                              Medically Important Fungi
                              1:38
                              Contagious Diseases
                              1:40
                              Commensal Organisms
                              2:39
                              Fungal Growth
                              3:14
                              Vegetative Growth
                              3:36
                              Septate Hypha
                              3:43
                              Continuous Hyphae
                              3:52
                              Spore
                              3:58
                              Fungal Dimorphism
                              4:06
                              Fungi Life Cycle
                              4:44
                              Filamentous Fungi
                              4:49
                              Fungal Spores
                              5:21
                              Fungal Fragmentation
                              6:05
                              Fungal Spore Formation
                              6:29
                              Fungi Sexual Reproduction
                              6:57
                              Plasmogamy
                              7:06
                              Karyogamy
                              7:10
                              Meiosis
                              7:11
                              Sexual Spores
                              7:45
                              Ascospore
                              8:11
                              Life Cycle of Ascomycete
                              8:21
                              Histoplasmosis Capsulatum (Ascomycete)
                              9:18
                              Histoplasmosis Distribution
                              10:54
                              Histoplasmosis Lifecycle
                              11:28
                              Fungal Diseases
                              13:06
                              Mycosis
                              13:08
                              Chronic and Long Term
                              13:16
                              Five Groups
                              13:21
                              Systemic
                              13:30
                              Subcutaneous
                              13:37
                              Cutaneous
                              13:40
                              Superficial
                              13:42
                              Opportunistic
                              13:45
                              Example 1
                              14:18
                              Example 2
                              17:40
                              Eukaryotes: Fungi, Part II

                              31m 55s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Introduction to Fungi
                              0:19
                              Recap of Fungi Part One
                              0:20
                              1.5 Million Species
                              0:28
                              Focus on Fungi That Cause Human Disease
                              0:59
                              Medically Important Fungi
                              1:42
                              Contagious Diseases?
                              1:44
                              Dermatophytosis Example
                              2:02
                              Pneumocystis Example
                              2:22
                              Commensal Organisms: Candida Albicans
                              2:36
                              Fungal Diseases
                              3:02
                              Mycosis
                              3:06
                              Fungal Mycoses
                              3:12
                              Five Groups
                              3:22
                              Superficial Fungal Diseases
                              4:10
                              Fungi That are Localized in Hair Shafts and on Skin Surface
                              4:20
                              Prevalent in Tropical Climate
                              4:31
                              Benign
                              4:38
                              Figures Explanation
                              4:44
                              Cutaneous Fungal Disease
                              5:04
                              Infect the Epidermis
                              5:05
                              Dermatomycoses
                              5:21
                              Dermatophytes
                              5:31
                              Dermatophytes Secrete Keratinase
                              6:04
                              Examples
                              6:31
                              Subcutaneous Fungal Diseases
                              6:39
                              Fungal Infections Beneath the Skin
                              6:42
                              Occur After a Puncture Wound
                              6:58
                              Infections Occur Among Farmers
                              8:15
                              Example: Sporotrichosis
                              8:26
                              Candidiasis Albicans
                              8:57
                              Most Common in Yeast Infections
                              8:58
                              Resides on Skin Surfaces
                              9:16
                              Resistant to Phagocytosis
                              9:46
                              Opportunistic Fungal Disease
                              12:25
                              Host is Debilitated or Traumatized
                              12:52
                              Under Treatment with Broad Spectrum Antibiotics
                              13:20
                              Immune System is Suppressed by Drugs
                              14:03
                              Has an Immune Disorder or Lung Disease
                              14:19
                              Pneumocystis Pneumonia
                              14:47
                              Caused by Pneumocystis Jirovecii
                              14:56
                              Most Frequent and Severe Opportunistic Infection
                              15:05
                              Immunocompetent Adults Have Few or No Symptoms
                              15:59
                              Example: Pneumocystis Cysts in Lung of Patient with AIDS
                              16:58
                              Life Cycle of Pheumocystis Jirovecii
                              17:34
                              Early Incidence of Pneumocystis
                              18:49
                              Systemic Fungal Disease
                              21:21
                              Fungal Infections Deep Within the Body
                              21:24
                              Caused by Fungi Living in the Soil
                              21:44
                              Infections Begin in Lungs and Spread to Other Tissue
                              22:13
                              Example: Coccidiodomycosis Infection of Lung Tissue
                              22:21
                              Life Cycle of Coccidiodes Immitis
                              23:12
                              Number of Coccidiomycosis Cases
                              24:10
                              Distribution of Coccidiomycosis Cases
                              26:06
                              Example 1
                              27:20
                              Example 2
                              30:08
                              Parasites

                              20m 1s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Introduction to Parasites
                              0:48
                              Live in Human Hosts
                              1:00
                              Example of Parasites
                              1:29
                              Extent of Parasitic Diseases
                              1:47
                              Parasitic Infections Cause a Tremendous Burden of Disease
                              1:54
                              Malaria Example
                              2:12
                              Neglected Tropical Diseases
                              2:38
                              Extent of Malaria
                              3:22
                              Relationships Between Species
                              6:51
                              Symbiosis Between Pathogen and Host
                              7:11
                              Symbiosis
                              7:29
                              Mutualism
                              7:58
                              Commensalism
                              8:05
                              Parasitism
                              9:10
                              Parasite Definitions
                              9:28
                              Parasite Definition
                              9:32
                              Three Major Classes
                              9:54
                              Ectoparasites
                              10:15
                              Locations of Parasitic Infection
                              10:48
                              Parasite Hosts and Vectors
                              12:21
                              Vectors Convey a Parasite from Host to Host
                              12:27
                              Anopheles Mosquito and Malaria
                              12:43
                              Example 1
                              13:04
                              Example 2
                              15:34
                              Eukaryotes: Protozoa

                              24m 59s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Introduction to Protozoa
                              0:13
                              Protozoa Definition
                              0:14
                              Intestinal Protozoa
                              1:19
                              Insect Vectors
                              1:47
                              Transmission of Enteric Protozoa
                              2:02
                              Transmission of Blood Borne Protozoa: Leishmaniasis
                              4:50
                              Leishmaniasis Transmission Chart
                              5:33
                              Cutaneous Leishmaniasis
                              7:15
                              Visceral Leishmaniasis
                              7:37
                              Medically Important Protozoa
                              8:07
                              Four Classes
                              8:24
                              Described by the Systems They Infect
                              8:54
                              Flagellates
                              9:10
                              Intestinal and Genito-Urinary Flagellates
                              9:32
                              Blood and Tissue Flagellates
                              9:42
                              Ambae
                              10:45
                              Typically Amoeboid
                              10:49
                              Represented by Entamoeba, Negleria, and Acanthamoeba
                              11:27
                              Sporozoa
                              12:38
                              Alternating Sexual and Asexual Reproductive Phases
                              12:56
                              Cyclospora Life Stage
                              13:13
                              Lifecycle of Sporozoa: Cryptosporidium
                              16:16
                              Ciliates
                              17:20
                              Complex Protozoa Bearing Cilia Distributed in Rows or Patches with Two Kinds of Nuclei in Each Cell
                              17:24
                              Balantidium Coli
                              17:54
                              Example 1
                              20:06
                              Example 2
                              22:52
                              Eukaryotes: Helminths

                              32m 53s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Introduction to Helminths
                              0:30
                              Definition of Helminths
                              0:31
                              Three Types of Helminths
                              0:54
                              Biological Properties of Helminths
                              1:38
                              Biological Life Cycle of Helminths
                              1:42
                              Adult Helminths May Be Dioecious
                              3:25
                              Monoecious Helminths
                              3:58
                              Characteristics of Helminths
                              4:12
                              May Lack a Digestive System
                              4:16
                              Nervous System is Reduced
                              4:41
                              Incidence of Helminth Infections Worldwide
                              5:50
                              Intestinal Helminths
                              6:29
                              Soil Transmitted Helminths
                              8:15
                              Wuchereria Bancrofti
                              8:35
                              Wuchereria Bancrofti Causes Lymphatic Filariasis
                              9:01
                              Nematode or Roundword That Inhibits Lymphatic Vessels
                              9:18
                              Life Cycle
                              9:43
                              Lifecycle of Wuchereria Bancrofti
                              10:11
                              Symptoms of Wuchereria Bancrofti
                              11:41
                              Elephantiasis
                              11:59
                              People Who Develop Lymphedema
                              12:39
                              Types of Chronic Tissue Helminth Infection
                              14:53
                              Distribution of Lymphatic Filariasis in India
                              18:08
                              Taenia Saginata or Solium
                              19:19
                              Human Tapeworms
                              19:20
                              Cestode That Inhabits Intestinal Tracts of Human Hosts
                              19:36
                              Taenia
                              20:01
                              Scolex
                              20:53
                              Tania or Tapeworms
                              21:39
                              Life Cycle of Taenia Saginata or Solium
                              22:15
                              Urban Myth of Reality
                              24:35
                              Example 1
                              25:41
                              Example 2
                              28:38
                              Helminths & Immunity

                              32m 50s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              The Immune System
                              0:45
                              Innate Immune Response
                              1:04
                              Adaptive Immune Response
                              1:15
                              Autoimmunity and Helminth Infection
                              2:20
                              Endemic Type 1 Diabetes
                              2:26
                              Endemic Helminth Infections
                              2:47
                              Coevolution of Helminths and Immunity
                              4:43
                              Helminth Infections are a Driving Force in Shaping
                              5:53
                              Helminths Do Not Replicate in Human Host
                              6:37
                              Helminths are Able to Maintain a Co-existence With Immune System
                              7:18
                              Innate Immunity
                              7:46
                              Adaptive Immunity
                              7:52
                              Localized Impact of Helminth Infection
                              9:05
                              Immune Modulation of Helminth Infection
                              14:07
                              Helminths and Immune Response
                              15:55
                              Other Ways Helminths Facilitate Immune Response
                              17:45
                              Helminth Influence on Immunity
                              19:07
                              Types of Chronic Tissue Helminth Infection
                              22:04
                              Infected, Low Pathology - Develop Tolerance
                              22:35
                              Chronic Pathology
                              22:50
                              Pathogen Co-Existence and Immunity
                              23:29
                              Helminths and Autoimmunity in Mice
                              25:31
                              Summary of Helminths and Immunity
                              26:39
                              Hygiene Hypothesis
                              26:42
                              Driving Force in Shaping
                              27:27
                              Absence of Helminths and the Immune Tolerances
                              27:46
                              Example 1
                              28:10
                              Example 2
                              30:23
                              Section 9: Survey of Important Bacteria
                              Gram Positive Bacteria

                              46m 35s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Introduction
                              1:01
                              External Peptidoglycan
                              1:07
                              Stain Purple
                              1:16
                              Reasons How External Peptidoglycan is Important
                              1:30
                              Properties of Gram Positive Bacteria
                              1:51
                              Immune Attack of Gram Positive Bacteria
                              3:21
                              Process of Opsonization
                              3:29
                              What is Opsonization
                              3:39
                              Complement Forms Membrane Attack Complexes
                              4:38
                              Ways Bacteria Gets Recognized by the System
                              5:14
                              Properties of Gram Positive Bacteria
                              6:55
                              Metabolism
                              7:00
                              Survival Mechanisms
                              7:11
                              Shapes
                              7:23
                              Environments
                              7:39
                              Examples of Gram Positive Bacteria
                              7:59
                              Shapes of Gram Positive Bacteria
                              9:13
                              Streptococci vs. Staphylococci
                              9:26
                              Staphylococci Shape
                              9:38
                              Streptococci Shape
                              9:52
                              Staphylococcus Bacteria
                              10:04
                              Staphylococcus
                              10:20
                              Salt-Tolerant
                              11:36
                              Two Main Species
                              12:24
                              Pathogenicity
                              12:38
                              Enzymes and Toxins
                              13:38
                              Staphylococcus Aureus
                              14:57
                              Food Borne Infection
                              15:04
                              Skin Infections
                              15:29
                              Systemic Disease
                              16:14
                              Staphylococcus Bacteria
                              17:36
                              Categorized According to Antigens
                              18:00
                              Streptococcus Group A
                              18:09
                              Streptococcus Pyogenes
                              19:09
                              Pathogenicity
                              19:37
                              Rheumatic Fever
                              20:00
                              Necrotizing Fasciatis
                              20:39
                              Glomerulonephritis
                              21:30
                              Surface M Protein
                              21:50
                              Hyaluronic Acid Capsule
                              22:25
                              Enzymes
                              22:47
                              Pyrogenic Toxins
                              22:57
                              Bacillus
                              23:34
                              Has Endospore Stage and Produces Toxins
                              23:59
                              Bacillus Anthracis
                              24:16
                              Spores Activated
                              25:12
                              Toxins Cause Disease
                              25:40
                              Clostridium Bacteria
                              26:02
                              Gram Positive, Anaerobic, and Endospore Producing
                              26:30
                              Different Clostridium Bacteria
                              26:56
                              Clostridium Difficile
                              27:34
                              Commonly Found Among the Intestinal Microbiota
                              27:38
                              Opportunistic Pathogen
                              27:57
                              Common in Hospital
                              28:30
                              Age-Adjusted Death Rate for Enterocolitis Due to C. Difficile
                              29:16
                              Listeria Bacteria
                              29:54
                              Avoidance of Immune Reaction by Listeria
                              31:23
                              Multi-State Listeriosis Outbreak from Whole Cantaloupes Grown by Jensen Farms, Colorado
                              33:04
                              Example 1
                              36:17
                              Example 2
                              39:05
                              Example 3
                              43:47
                              Gram Negative Bacteria

                              44m 38s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Introduction
                              0:29
                              Internal Cell Wall
                              0:45
                              Characteristic Properties
                              0:54
                              Gram Negative Bacterial Cell Wall
                              2:01
                              Outer Membrane Provides a Barrier
                              3:05
                              Outer Membrane Contains Lipid A
                              3:16
                              Properties of Gram Negative Bacteria
                              3:20
                              Lipid A Molecule
                              3:26
                              Lipopolysaccharides
                              3:40
                              Most Gram Negative Bacteria Do Not Form Spores
                              3:54
                              Gram Negative Laboratory Algorithm
                              4:05
                              Properties of Gram Negative Bacteria
                              6:45
                              Outer Membrane
                              6:50
                              Genetic Exchange
                              6:53
                              Immune Reaction to Gram Negative Bacteria
                              7:49
                              Examples of Gram Negative Bacteria
                              12:12
                              Endotoxin
                              12:52
                              Differ from Exotoxin in Several Ways
                              13:05
                              Released When Gram Negative Bacteria Undergo Lysis and Endotoxin is Liberated
                              13:50
                              Stimulate Macrophages to Release High Concentrations of Cytokines
                              14:36
                              E. Coli Bacteria
                              15:03
                              Escherichia Coli
                              15:06
                              Pathogenic Strains of E. Coli
                              15:28
                              Shiga-Toxin E. Coli Outbreak, Germany 2011
                              16:24
                              Salmonella Bacteria
                              18:29
                              Pathogenicity
                              18:36
                              Infection by Salmonella
                              20:36
                              Another Image of Infection by Salmonella
                              21:41
                              Bacterial Infections, 2013
                              23:44
                              Vibrio Bacteria
                              25:12
                              Vibrio Genus
                              25:37
                              Most Virulent Species is Vibrio Cholerae
                              25:50
                              Cholera Life Cycle
                              26:59
                              Worldwide Cholera Cases
                              29:44
                              New Cases of Cholera in Haiti During a 2 Year Period
                              30:24
                              Preventing Cholera Infection with Gut Flora
                              31:10
                              Bordetella Pertussis
                              32:55
                              Aerobic Coccobacillus
                              33:24
                              Tracheal Toxin
                              33:40
                              Pertussis Toxin
                              33:50
                              Pertussis Infection Timeline
                              34:25
                              Pertussis Symptom Timeline
                              36:10
                              Reported Pertussis Cases in US 1922-2003
                              37:31
                              Example 1
                              38:09
                              Example 2
                              39:36
                              Example 3
                              41:16
                              Bacteria with Other Cell Walls

                              24m 6s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Bacteria Classification by Cell Wall
                              0:21
                              Gram Positive vs. Gram Negative
                              1:01
                              Gram Stain
                              1:18
                              Shape
                              1:24
                              Bacteria Undetectable with Gram Stain
                              3:07
                              Mycobacteria
                              3:23
                              Mycoplasma Pneumonia
                              4:02
                              Chlamydia
                              4:11
                              Mycoplasma Pneumoniae Bacteria
                              4:23
                              Atypical Small Bacterium Without A Cell Wall
                              4:30
                              Lacks Rigid Cell Wall
                              5:02
                              Extracellular in Respiratory Tract
                              7:02
                              Acid-Fast Bacteria
                              7:38
                              Mycobacterium Tuberculosis
                              8:36
                              Infectious Process
                              10:31
                              Tuberculosis Incidence in 2005
                              12:45
                              Chlamydia Trachomatis Bacteria
                              15:11
                              Obligate Intracellular Human Parasite
                              15:39
                              Gram Negative
                              16:01
                              Three Human Biovars
                              16:15
                              Life Cycle of Chlamydia
                              17:33
                              Example 1
                              19:42
                              Example 2
                              21:01
                              Section 10: Microbes and Human Disease
                              Tuberculosis

                              28m

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Tuberculosis Introduction
                              0:47
                              Malaria
                              0:51
                              Acid-Fast Staining
                              1:04
                              Tuberculosis Disease
                              1:42
                              Latent and Active Disease
                              1:51
                              Strong Man Image Example
                              2:22
                              Mycobacterium Tuberculosis
                              2:39
                              Cell Wall
                              2:48
                              Tuberculosis Incidence in 2012
                              3:21
                              Worldwide Tuberculosis Incidence
                              4:19
                              TB Research Center, Chennai, India
                              5:00
                              Tuberculosis in United States
                              5:47
                              Estimated HIV Co-Infection Among Individuals Diagnosed with TB in U.S.
                              6:28
                              Tuberculosis Pathogenesis
                              7:40
                              Infection
                              7:50
                              How It's Spread
                              8:09
                              What Determines Whether or Not an Individual Will be Exposed
                              8:49
                              Bacilli can Multiply Once Reaching the Alveoli
                              9:21
                              Mycobacterium Tuberculosis
                              10:18
                              Inactive Form of TB
                              10:34
                              Active vs. Inactive Form of TB Depends on If Bacilli Stay in Tissue or Break Out
                              10:44
                              Tuberculosis Pathogenesis
                              11:20
                              Bacilli That Reach Alveoli
                              11:32
                              Those Bacilli are Ingested by Macrophages
                              12:28
                              No Symptoms of Disease
                              13:20
                              More Advanced Stage
                              13:25
                              Multiply in Macrophages
                              13:45
                              Inflammation
                              14:24
                              After a Few Weeks Disease Symptoms Appear
                              15:00
                              Caseous Center
                              15:30
                              Aerobic Bacilli Do Not Grow Well in the Center
                              16:18
                              Granuloma Can Reactivate Later
                              16:46
                              Active Disease: The Granuloma Can Rupture with Liquefaction
                              17:25
                              Active TB
                              18:04
                              Tuberculosis Staging
                              18:12
                              Stage 3 Important Stage
                              18:40
                              Stage 5 You Have TB
                              18:55
                              Tuberculosis Testing
                              19:31
                              Tuberculin Skin Test
                              19:32
                              Positive Skin Reaction Image Example
                              20:14
                              Tuberculosis Vaccination
                              20:32
                              BCG Vaccination in Other Areas Around the World
                              20:48
                              BCG Protects from the Active Form of Tuberculosis
                              21:06
                              BCG Does Not Confer Lifelong Protection
                              22:34
                              Mycobacterium Tuberculosis
                              22:51
                              Target Different Parts
                              23:09
                              Regiment
                              23:32
                              Example 1
                              24:34
                              Example 2
                              26:40
                              Malaria, a Protozoan Disease

                              29m 59s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Protozoa Introduction
                              1:13
                              One-Celled Organisms
                              1:14
                              Free Living or Parasitic
                              1:19
                              Can Multiply in Humans
                              1:27
                              How Does a Pathogen Get to the Digestive Tract
                              1:44
                              Worldwide Cases of Malaria
                              3:06
                              Found Where There a Lot of Mosquitoes
                              3:14
                              Malaria Introduction
                              4:00
                              Protozoa
                              4:03
                              Lives Partially in Human Host, Partially in Mosquito
                              4:06
                              Four Major Species
                              4:29
                              Carried by Anopheles Mosquitoes
                              4:49
                              Lifecycle of Malaria
                              5:08
                              Two Stages in Human Host and One Stage in Mosquito
                              5:30
                              Mosquito Bites and Injects Sporozoites
                              5:49
                              Parasite Goes Into Liver
                              7:14
                              Blood Supply
                              7:33
                              Diagnostic Stage
                              7:55
                              Erythrocytes
                              8:11
                              Gametocytes
                              9:04
                              Final Stage: Release of Sporozoites
                              9:39
                              Sickle Cell Anemia and Moleria
                              10:16
                              Sickle Cell Anemia is a Genetic Mutation Disease
                              10:34
                              Function
                              11:05
                              Hemoglobin Shape and Oxygen Capacity are Slightly Different
                              11:16
                              Selective Advantages and Disadvantages
                              12:04
                              Effects at a Cellular Level
                              12:06
                              Effects at the Organismal Level
                              12:39
                              Effects at the Population Level
                              12:54
                              Evolution of Human Malaria
                              13:31
                              Plasmodium Parasite Has Evolved
                              13:40
                              Plasmodium Reichenowi
                              13:56
                              What's Going on in India
                              14:43
                              Malaria Pathogenicity
                              15:40
                              Incubation Period
                              15:41
                              Symptoms
                              16:05
                              P. vivax and P. ovale
                              16:41
                              Dormant Liver Stage
                              16:57
                              Diagnosis
                              18:33
                              Malaria Treatment
                              19:30
                              Depends on Many Factors
                              19:32
                              Medications
                              20:32
                              Example 1
                              22:28
                              Example 2
                              27:38
                              HIV/AIDS

                              38m 7s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              What is HIV / AIDS?
                              0:31
                              Human Immunodeficiency Virus
                              0:32
                              Once Infected, the Virus Will Always Be There
                              1:28
                              Exception
                              1:45
                              Transmitted Through Body Fluids
                              2:10
                              Virus
                              2:15
                              HIV Can be Transmitted Through
                              3:13
                              Sexual Contact, Injection Drug Use, Occupational Exposure, Pregnancy, Blood Transfusion
                              3:14
                              Blood Transfusion Used to be Significant for Disease Transmission
                              3:31
                              Adult HIV Prevalence, 2012
                              4:30
                              Africa is Highest
                              4:40
                              North and South America are Also High Prevalence
                              4:44
                              India
                              5:02
                              Counts of AIDS Cases
                              5:22
                              Example of Disease Transmission
                              7:19
                              Males
                              7:31
                              Females
                              7:42
                              HIV/ AIDS Methods of Transmission
                              8:33
                              HIV Retrovirus
                              9:10
                              Retrovirus
                              9:21
                              Replicate the Virus
                              10:13
                              Life Cycle of HIV Virus
                              10:55
                              Genome
                              11:10
                              Reverse Transcription
                              11:16
                              Host DNA Produces Goes Through Transcription and Translation
                              11:26
                              Produce Viral RNA
                              11:36
                              Importance of Figure
                              12:00
                              Viral Load and Immune Cell
                              12:45
                              Individual Infected
                              12:52
                              Plasma Virus Load Increases then Rapidly Declines
                              12:58
                              CD4+ T Cell
                              13:34
                              Immune System is Suppressed Enough That AIDs Develops
                              14:20
                              Evolution of HIV/ AIDS
                              15:31
                              Immunodeficiency and Development of Opportunistic Infections
                              17:40
                              Herpes Simplex Virus
                              18:00
                              Herpes Zoster Ophthalmicus
                              18:10
                              Kaposi Sarcoma and Many More
                              18:22
                              Disease Emerge at Different Time Depending on Degree of Suppression
                              18:40
                              Opportunistic Infections with HIV
                              18:52
                              Early 1900s
                              19:04
                              Pneumocystis
                              19:21
                              Opportunistic Fungal Disease
                              20:15
                              Harmless, Opportunistic Fungi
                              20:31
                              Can Happen to Individuals Who are Taking Drugs to Suppress Immune System
                              20:44
                              Pneumocystis Pneumonia
                              21:13
                              Pathogen
                              21:32
                              Immunodeficient Adults
                              21:41
                              Estimated HIV Co-Infection Among Individuals Diagnosed with TB in U.S.
                              22:00
                              Kaposi Sarcoma
                              22:42
                              Rare Cancer
                              22:49
                              Skin Neoplasm
                              23:14
                              Subtypes All Have Human Herpesvirus-8
                              23:31
                              How It Looks
                              23:57
                              Kaposi Sarcoma Spindle Cells
                              24:29
                              How to Treat Kaposi Sarcoma
                              25:17
                              HIV Prevalence Among Young Adult Women in India
                              26:02
                              Example 1
                              31:24
                              Example 2
                              33:32
                              Ebola

                              43m 9s

                              Intro
                              0:00
                              Ebola Virus Overview
                              0:22
                              Ebola Virus Outbreak Distribution
                              0:59
                              1976 Ebola Outbreak First Identified
                              1:00
                              Recent Outbreak in Zaire
                              2:15
                              Three Countries Most Affected Today
                              2:39
                              Amount of Hospitals in Those Countries
                              3:40
                              Ebola Virus Ecology
                              4:14
                              Thought to Just Infect Warm Blooded Animals
                              4:24
                              Epidemic Starts When Virus Infects Humans
                              4:45
                              Ebola Virus Infection
                              5:55
                              Virus Comes From Animal and Infects Human
                              5:57
                              Infected Cells
                              6:10
                              Endothelial Cell Gaps Causes Leakage of Blood and Virus
                              6:35
                              Ebola Virus Symptoms
                              7:37
                              Fever
                              7:43
                              Early Signs
                              7:54
                              Big Sign of Being Infected: Travel History
                              8:18
                              Key About the Symptom Emerging
                              9:40
                              Timeline of Ebola Virus Symptoms
                              11:21
                              Day 2: First Symptoms
                              11:36
                              Day 10: High Fever and Vomiting
                              12:29
                              Day 11: Brain Damage and Bleeding
                              13:13
                              Day 12: Loss of Consciousness
                              13:44
                              Ebola Virus Characteristics
                              14:14
                              Filovirus
                              14:27
                              Enveloped, Helical Viruses
                              14:31
                              Ebola and Marburg Viruses
                              14:36
                              Morphology of Helical Ebola Virus
                              14:52
                              Capsid
                              14:56
                              Nucleic Acid
                              15:04
                              Ebola Virus Structure
                              15:38
                              Outside of the Structure
                              15:42
                              Inside the Envelope
                              15:56
                              Virus Can Recreate Itself in the Cytoplasm
                              16:54
                              RNA Viral Replication
                              18:04
                              Negative and Positive Strand
                              18:32
                              Ebola Virus Entry
                              20:26
                              Cell the Virus Penetrates
                              21:18
                              Inflammatory Reaction
                              21:45
                              Viruses Released Into Individuals Body
                              22:23
                              Ebola Virus: Immune Reaction
                              23:08
                              Survivors
                              23:20
                              Individuals Who Die From Ebola
                              23:33
                              Effective Dose
                              24:03
                              Host Immune Response to Ebola
                              24:36
                              Monocyte
                              24:44
                              Cytokines Storm
                              25:01
                              Ebola Virus Pathogenisis
                              25:40
                              Infection
                              25:46
                              Neutrophil
                              25:56
                              Depletion of Natural Killer Cells
                              26:06
                              Ebola Virus Can Serve to Surpress the Immune Reaction
                              26:37
                              How Contagious is Ebola?
                              27:49
                              Not Very Contagious, But Very Infectious
                              27:58
                              In Relation to Other Diseases
                              28:43
                              Ebola Transmission
                              29:24
                              Patient Zero Thought to be Infected by Animal
                              29:28
                              Eating Bushmeat In West Africa
                              29:46
                              Ebola Spreads by Direct Contact
                              30:16
                              Ebola in Healthcare Settings
                              31:13
                              Healthcare Workers at Higher Risk Because They Handle Body Fluids
                              31:22
                              Precautions
                              32:07
                              Treatment of Ebola
                              34:13
                              No Vaccine, but There Are Experimental Treatments (ZMAPP)
                              34:18
                              Basic Interventions When Done Early, Can Improve Chances of Survival
                              36:27
                              Example 1
                              37:41
                              Example 2
                              39:18
                              Example 3
                              41:05
                              Educator®

                              Please sign in to participate in this lecture discussion.

                              Resetting Your Password?
                              or
                              Still having trouble? Contact us
                              OR

                              Start Learning Now

                              Our free lessons will get you started (Adobe Flash® required).
                               Get immediate access to our entire library.

                              Membership Overview

                              • Available 24/7. Unlimited Access to Our Entire Library.
                              • Search and jump to exactly what you want to learn.
                              • *Ask questions and get answers from the community and our teachers!
                              • Practice questions with step-by-step solutions.
                              • Download lecture slides for taking notes.
                              • Track your course viewing progress.
                              • Accessible anytime, anywhere with our Android and iOS apps.